Archives: Synagogues

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1. 1958-1971
2. 1973-2013

Excavator(s):

1. George M. A. Hanfmann (Harvard University, Cornell University, Corning Museum of Glass)
2. Harvard-Cornell Sardis Excavations

Archaeological Information: Syn (= Main Hall of Synagogue), SynFc (= Forecourt of synagogue)

Date of Building Construction:

mid-6th century [1015]

Place of Building in Settlement:
In the middle of a shopping district, along a colonnaded street. [1016]

Building Description:
This synagogue was not a freestanding building but was incorporated into a monumental Roman bath and gymnasium complex. Below the synagogue building lay at least three consecutive buildings, including a Roman civil basilica.[1017] Only in the fourth, and final stage, did the building definitely function as a synagogue.[1018] The synagogue consisted of two main rooms: an entrance court, or forecourt with a fountain in the middle, and a long assembly hall, or main hall. The floor of the forecourt was covered in complex and multicolored mosaic panels with donor inscriptions. Three doors led into the main hall, which had two rows of six piers. Two platforms with pediments flanked the inside of the central door. At the opposite, west end of the hall, was a broad apse containing three-tiered benches, separated by a railing. In front of the apse stood a large, marble table decorated with Roman eagles. Two pairs of marble lions (spolia) flanked the table. The floor of the main hall was also covered with geometric mosaic designs and donor inscriptions. In total, more than 80 inscriptions were found in the building, carved on marble plaques, incised in stone, or as part of the mosaic floor. Pieces of a large marble menorah were also found inside the main hall.

Maps and Plans

First Deposit

Date Excavated: July 20, 1963

Deposit Location:

Under the floor in the forecourt of the synagogue

Archaeological Information:

Hoard B, Area E 113-115 N 7-10, at a depth of 96.75 to 97.25 meters

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

This deposit is mentioned in the Bates catalogue from 1971 on the Byzantine coins found at Sardis.  [1019] The only information on the deposit, which is labeled Hoard B, given is that it was found on July 7, 1963 at a depth of 96.75 to 97.25 meter, in grid E 113-115 N 7-10. The deposit contains 248 coins, of which 223 were disintegrated and 22 were illegible; only 3 have been identified. The date of the hoard is said to be 491-578 CE.

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
The only information on this deposit is found in Appendix B: Description and index of hoards, in the volume on the Byzantine coins found at Sardis published by George E. Bates in 1971 (p. 151). Here, Bates states that of the 248 coins found in this deposit, 223 were disintegrated and 22 were illegible. Thus, only 3 have been identified: Nos. 16, 253, and 421 in Bates’ catalogue. The coins are respectively a nummus of Anastasius I (491-518 CE, Constantinople), a decanummium of Justinian I (560-561 CE, Cyzicus), and a pentanummium of Justin II (565-578 CE, Constantinople). At the moment, Andrew Seager, Marcus Rautman, Jane DeRose Evans, and others are working on the final publication of the coins from Sardis. When they are finished, more information on the context and the content of this deposit may become available.[1020]

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Sardis, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1958-1971

Deposit Location:

Under the floor in the forecourt of the synagogue

Archaeological Information:

/

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

These coins were found below the floor level in the forecourt. A total of almost 500 coins was discovered under the synagogue floor, 65 of which were found in the main hall: 435 come from under the floor of the forecourt. 300 of these circa 400 coins were legible and circa 123 of them were reliably located beneath unbroken mosaics or were sealed in the mortar bedding for the fountain.[1021] The specific context of each coin, however, is very confusing. The coins were not given any real stratigraphic context in the field books or in the coin registries during the excavations: the archaeologists just list grid coordinates, field book pages, date of excavation, etc. Thus, it is difficult to determine which coins come from under which mosaic panels, and which coins come from repairs or damaged areas, or from inside drains and pipes. In 2005, Jodi Magness published an article on 31 coins dating from before 380 CE, which she believes come from under the Sardis forecourt floor. However, even here different contexts and stratigraphic layers are given for the group as a whole: some coins come from directly under the mosaic floor, while others were found under the bedding of the mosaic floor. Still others were found next to or under the water pipes that provided water to the fountain, and which according to the excavators, were laid at a later stage.[1022] Thus, archaeologist Nicholas Cahill, the current director of the Sardis excavations, believes it is too early to draw any conclusions on the contexts and the function of the Sardis coins.[1023] The coins have been included in this study but need to be approached with caution. When the final publication monograph is published, the Sardis team will make the coins available in a searchable database at http://sardisexpedition.org.

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
Circa 400 coins were found in this deposit, of which 123 came from sealed loci. Magness published 31 coins of this deposit dated after 380 CE in her 2005 article. The catalogue of Byzantine coins published by George E. Bates in 1971 contains another 39 coins.[1024] This leaves us with a remaining 330 unknown coins.
Based on the 70 known coins, the deposit ranges in date from 378-383 CE (Valentinian II) to 612-613 CE (Heraclius I), with an even spread of coins throughout this period. Coins of Justinian I and Maurice (Tiberius) are the most frequent, with 13 and 10 coins respectively. Of the coins identified, 14 are pentanummi (32%), 10 are decanummi (23%), 9 are half folles (20%), 7 are folles (16%), and 4 are nummi (9%). Most of the coins were minted in Constantinople, but one coin was struck at Constantine in Numidia (a half follis of Justin II, 572-573 CE), the only coin from Algeria found in an ancient synagogue deposit.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Sardis, Deposit 2. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Third Deposit

Date Excavated: 1958-1972

Deposit Location:

Under the floor in the main hall of the synagogue

Archaeological Information:

/

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

65 coins found under the mosaics of the main hall of the synagogue at different spots where the mosaic panels have been lifted.[1025] Here, the same caveat must be mentioned as to the coins found in the forecourt of the synagogue: Cahill, together with Seager and Evans, are still working on the final publication of these coins. Thus, any conclusions about the context and function of these coins need to be approached with caution.[1026]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
According to Hanfmann, a total of 65 identifiable coins was found, 27 of which came from sealed loci.[1027] Magness published 12 coins from this deposit dated after 380 CE in her 2005 article. The catalogue of Byzantine coins published by Bates in 1971 contains another 12 coins.[1028] This leaves us with a remaining 41 unknown coins. The coins range in date from 308-337 CE (Constantine I?) to 615-616 CE (Heraclius I), following more or less the same date range as the coins found under the floor of the forecourt. Coins of Heraclius I comprise the largest group (8 coins). As for denominations, of the 13 coins that could be identified, 11 were folles, one was a decanummium, and one was a pentanummium. Most of the coins were minted in Constantinople, with two from Cyzicus, and two from Nicomedia.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Sardis, Deposit 3. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Hanfmann G., 1964, “The Sixth Campaign at Sardis (1963),” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 174, pp. 3-58
– Hanfmann G., 1965, “The Seventh Campaign at Sardis (1964),” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 177, pp. 2-37
– Hanfmann G. et al., 1966, “The Eighth Campaign at Sardis (1965)”, in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 182, pp. 2-54
– Hanfmann G. & Majewski L., 1967, “The Ninth Campaign at Sardis (1966),” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 187, pp. 9-62
– Hanfmann G., Mitten D., and Ramage A., 1968, “The tenth Campaign at Sardis (1967),” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 191, pp. 2-41
– Hanfmann G. et al., 1970, “The Eleventh and Twelfth Campaign at Sardis (1968, 1969),” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 199, pp. 7-58
– Bates G., 1971, Byzantine Coins. Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, Harvard University Press
– Hanfmann G. and Thomas R., 1971, “The thirteenth Campaign at Sardis (1970),” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 203, pp. 5-22
– Seager A., 1972, “The Building History of the Sardis Synagogue,” in: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 76, No. 4, pp. 425-435
– Seager A., 1974, “The Synagogue at Sardis,” in: Qadmoniot, Vol. 7, pp. 123-128
– Buttrey, Theodore V, Johnston A., MacKenzie K.M., and Michael L. Bates, 1981, Greek, Roman, and Islamic Coins from Sardis, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
– Hanfmann G. & Burrell B., 1981, “Notes on some Archaeological Contexts,” in: Hanfmann G & Scott J. (eds.), Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, Harvard University Press, pp. xx-xxiv
– Seager A., 1982 “The Synagogue at Sardis,” Levine L. (ed.), Ancient Synagogues Revealed, Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society, pp. 178-184
– Kraabel, A.T., 1982a, “The Excavated Synagogues of Late Antiquity from Asia Minor to Italy,” in: Internationaler Bysantinistenkongress, Vol. 16.2.2, pp. 227-236
– Hanfmann G. (ed.), 1983, Sardis, from Prehistoric to Roman Times, Harvard University Press
– Magness J., 2005, “The Date of the Sardis Synagogue in Light of the Numismatic Evidence,” in: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 109, No. 3, pp. 443-475
– DeRose Evans J., 2013, “Five Small Bronze Hoards from Sardis and their Implication for Coin Circulation in the Fifth Century C.E.,” in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 369, pp. 137-156
– DeRose J., 2018, Coins from the Excavations at Sardis, Their Archaeological and Economic Contexts, Coins from the 1973 to 2013 Excavations, Harvard University Press

Website(s):

– Sardis expedition:
http://sardisexpedition.org/en/essays/about-synagogue
– Museum of the Jewish People:
https://www.bh.org.il/the-ancient-synagogue-of-sardis-turkey/
– The Byzantine Legacy:
https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/sardis-synagogue

Footnotes

[1015] This date is based on the re-evaluation of the numismatic evidence found under the floor of the synagogue by Jodi Magness (Magness 2005b). The excavators believe that there were two phases to the synagogue building: the first phase constructed in the second half of the third century, the second in the fourth century. However, after Magness examined the unpublished field reports and notebooks of the excavations, an initial construction date of the structure as a synagogue in the mid-sixth century seems more correct. In fact, a terminus post quem of the early 7^th century might even be proposed, based on the coins found under the floors of the synagogue hall and courtyard (see below).

[1016] The synagogue was discovered in 1962 by the Harvard-Cornell expeditions (Seager 1972, p. 425) For an overview of early travelers visiting the site, see Hanfmann 1983, p. 148.

[1017] Seager and Kraabel 1983, p. 172.

[1018] Magness 2005b, p. 109.

[1019] Bates 1971, p. 151 (Appendix B).

[1020] Personal communication Nicholas Cahill. He states that the researchers “have been working through the coins and the fieldbooks and plans and photographs, trying to sort them into “real” contexts as much as possible.” He also notes that “This is slow and painstaking work … and sorting out which coins actually come from under which mosaics, as opposed to coming from repairs, damaged areas, etc. or from benches, drains, or other contexts, has taken a lot of time and the work still needs to be checked and proofread.”

[1021] Seager 1972, pp. 432-433; Hanfmann and Scott 1981, p. xxii; Hanfmann 1983, p. 173. See for example Hanfmann 1965, p. 21: 15 coins were found between July 7-14, 1964, when a fragmentary mosaic in the northeastern part of the forecourt, directly north of the entrance which led from the “Marble Avenue” into the synagogue through the Byzantine shops, was lifted (roughly E 107-112, N 1-4). The coins were found in fill below the mortar bedding of the mosaic, but above a second layer of mortar. The latest of the coins was datable to the end of the 4^th century CE (report by D.G. Mitten). And Hanfmann et al. 1970, p. 47: A total of 124 coins was found under inner mosaic panels W 1-5 (MS 62.6-10), 94 of which were legible.

[1022] “The pipe system serving the fountain was replaced by a second, parallel set of pipes.” Hanfmann et al. 1968, pp. 29-31; Seager 1977, pp. 434-435; Hanfmann 1983, p. 174.

[1023] Personal communication. In two emails from the spring of 2020, Cahill wrote to me: “In the years that the synagogue was being dug, they did not really record “context” or “deposit” the way we think about those concepts: for instance, they usually don’t specify whether a coin was found under a floor, or in a bench or a niche or a bema, but often simply give grid coordinates and levels. These can sometimes be “translated” into archaeological contexts, but that usually requires rather intense work with the field books and other records, and there will always be slippage and uncertainty. Even the grid coordinates were not always measured with strings and tapes and such, but were estimated from marks on the walls, which were ca. 20 m apart; and the marks themselves were revised over the years as the building was re-surveyed, introducing inconsistencies. Excavators couldn’t be on the spot at all times; they were often responsible for several widely separated areas of excavation and often were absent when coins (and other artifacts) were found.  Often the person digging removed small objects like coins and pointed to the place where he found it when the supervisor returned. Even when coins are found in the process of removing the floor or another feature, it is often unclear whether the coin was really sealed in that feature, or whether the feature was preserved at the point where the coin was found. It is also often unclear what the situation was after the Synagogue ceased to be used as a synagogue, so the majority of the coins can’t necessarily be associated with the use of this as a building. In short, it’s a mess.”

[1024] Bates 1971. He gives a total of 53 coins as coming from the forecourt of the synagogue in Appendix A of his catalogue (p. 150). However, of these 53, I dropped Nos. 16, 253, and 421 (since these were found in Hoard B, and thus form a separate deposit), Nos. 76, 99, 174, 199 (found during sifting ABOVE the mosaic), Nos. 286, 401, 442, 754 (found in a water channel), No. 563 (found in collapse OVER floor), No. 810 (found during cleaning of the floor), and No. 905 (found in a wall). I believe the remaining 39 coins may be assumed as coming from fill under the mosaic floor.

[1025] For example, in 1956 a trench was excavated in the southeast corner of the main hall, between E 87-93 and N 1.20-2.95. Three coins were found here, embedded in the foundation for the mosaics (Hanfmann et al. 1966, p. 40).

[1026] For example, according to Hanfmann, floor mosaics “were repaired periodically, and some whole panels were replaced, each time giving a possibility for dropping coins” (Hanfmann 1983, p. 174). However, this conclusion was made AFTER later coins were identified as coming from under these panels. In other words, it may be that all the panels were placed at the same time, with the early 7^th century as terminus post quem!

[1027] Hanfmann and Scott 1981, p. xxii; Hanfmann 1983, p. 173.

[1028] Bates 1971. He gives a total of 17 coins as coming from the main hall of the synagogue in Appendix A of his catalogue (p. 150). However, of those 17, I omitted No. 290 (found in a closet ABOVE the floor), No. 613 (found ON floor), No. 616 (found during cleaning of mosaic floor), and Nos 1139 and 171 (dated to the 11^th century CE and thus intrusive). I believe the remaining 12 coins may be assumed to be coins from fill under the mosaic floor.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1. 1961-1964
2. 1977

Excavator(s):

1. Maria Floriani Squarciapino
2. Maria Floriani Squarciapino

Archaeological Information: Areas A, B, C, D, E, F, and G in Building IV.17.1

Date of Building Construction:

1. Phase I: second half 1st century CE
2. Intermediary Period: first half 2nd century
3. Phase II: 4th century, after 340 CE [1029]

Place of Building in Settlement:
Near the ancient seashore along the Via Severiana, outside the official city walls.[1030]

Building Description:

[1031] Phase I: This complex consisted of rooms B, C, D, and G only, forming a large, rectangular building with a concave wall on the western side. The main hall of the synagogue building was room D; a room with benches (described as “masonry seats for the faithful”[1032]) and a podium on the west side. To the east of this hall lay three rooms,

Area C, consisting of four columns forming a square with partition walls with doors on either side of the pairs of columns (the vestibule). Areas B and G to the east had no divisions, making this area one room.[1033] There were three entrances to the complex from the north and three from the east (the direction of Jerusalem). All floors were covered with cocciopesto floors (= opus signinum). In front of the complex to the east were a well and cistern. Intermediary Phase: It is not clear what features this phase included.[1034] Perhaps Area B was now divided by wooden walls. Perhaps a Torah shrine, which Floriani Squarciapino repeatedly mentions in her publication but of which there are no archaeological remains, was installed in this phase. Perhaps the mosaic floor of room 10/G (“the room with the oven”) was laid in this Phase. This phase remains unclear but probably contained many renovations and adaptations to the building. Phase II: The building complex was enlarged and Areas A, F, and E were added. Area A, to the east of the building, became the new vestibule, containing the well but covering the cistern, and having one entrance on the east side and one on the north. The entrance from the north was flanked by two marble columns; the room had a marble floor in which was found part of an inscription known as the Mindius Faustus inscription. Area B was divided into three rooms and was separated from room G. All these rooms had mosaic floors. The northern-most room (B1) had a shallow water basin with a floor paved in cocciopesto. Perhaps Area G now received an oven as well as a table with a marble top, and some amphorae were sunk into the pavement. At a later point, the mosaic floor was covered by a rough floor of earth, ash, and fragments of marble and terracotta. Beneath this rough floor but above the mosaic floor, several terracotta oil lamps of the 5^th century were found, decorated with menorahs. The main hall of the synagogue was paved with opus sectile and the benches were removed. The podium was retained and renovated. Later, a Torah shrine was added, standing on a podium that could be reached by four steps. At a later date, this podium was enlarged. All doors coming from the north were blocked and more supporting walls and columns were added, suggesting a vaulted roof. Room F is a short corridor to the west of room G, giving access to room E: a room with broad benches, perhaps a triclinium.

Maps and Plans

First Deposit

Date Excavated: June 7, 1962

Deposit Location:

Under the mosaic floor of a side room of the intermediary phase of the synagogue

Archaeological Information:

Quadro 4B, in room 10 of Building IV.17.1 (Area/Room G)

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

The final phase of Room 10 or G (“the chamber with the oven”) had a rough floor of earth, ash, and fragments of marble and terracotta, which may have been connected to the cooking area in the room or the marble-topped table found there.[1035] Underneath this floor, archaeologists discovered a fine white and black mosaic floor with a variety of decorative motifs. According to the excavators, the cooking installations were added on top of this floor, at which point also large jars, connected to each other by low plinths, were sunk into the floor.[1036] Underneath this fine mosaic floor was a floor of cocciopesto, or “pounded pottery.” It is in this layer between the mosaic floor and the cocciopesto surface (also called opus signinum, a building technique made of tiles broken into very small pieces mixed with mortar and then beaten down) that 51 bronze coins were found together. Room 10 is located southeast of the synagogue hall but is part of the larger synagogue complex. The coin deposit was found under the mosaic floor in the northern half of this room (in the southwest corner of “Quadro 4B”), 60 cm away from the table with a marble slab towards the southwest corner of the room.[1037] The coins were found stuck in a layer composed of the lime setting for the mosaic, about 13 cm above the cocciopesto surface.[1038] Because, according to Floriani Squarciapino, the kitchen installations were not connected with the cocciopesto floor, the function of this room in its initial phase was interpreted as a “large chamber for prayer,” a street-front shop, or a triclinium.[1039]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
The 51 bronze coins found in this deposit were published by Daniella Williams in 2014 after her research in the Ostia archives.[1040] The card catalogue that she discovered on the coins is very detailed and gives, in addition to the obverse and reverse of each coins, also the state of preservation, weight, provenance [=context], date of acquisition, and bibliography.[1041]
The group of coins is chronologically uniform, ranging from 327-328 CE to 337-347 CE, with coins minted by Constans I (31.5%), Constantine I (27.5%), Constantius II (21.5%), and Constantine II (19.5%). Coins minted at eastern mints are rare, with most of the coins minted in Rome, in contrast to the synagogue deposits found in Israel. One coin was minted at Lugdunum (Constantine I?, 335 CE). 28 coins are of the GLORIA EXERCITVS type (55%),[1042] while eleven coins are of the SECVRITAS type (21%), six are of the CONSTANTINOPOLIS with Victoria on a prow type (12%), four coins are of the VIRTVS AUGVSTI type (8%), and two are VRBS ROMA with She-wolf coins (4%).[1043]

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Ostia, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1961, “La Sinagoga di Ostia,” in: Bollettino d’arte, Vol. 46, pp. 326-337
– Zovatto P., 1961, “Le antiche Sinagoghe di Aquileia e di Ostia,” in: Memorie storiche forogiuliesi, Vol. 44, pp. 53-63
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1962, “La Sinagoga recentemente scoperta ad Ostia,” in: RednPontAcc, Vol. 34, pp. 119-132
– Hempel H.L., 1962, “Synagogenfund in Ostia Antica,” in: Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. 74, pp. 72-73
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1963a, “Ebrei a Roma e ad Ostia,” in: StRom, Vol. 11, pp. 129-141
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1963b, “The Synagogue at Ostia,” in: Archaeology, Vol. 16, pp. 194-203
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1963c, “Die Synagoge von Ostia nach der Zweiten Ausgrabungskampagne,” in: Raggi. Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte und Archäologie, Vol. 5, pp. 13-17
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1963d, “The Most Ancient Synagogue Known from Monumental Remains,” in: Illustrated London News, Vol.28, pp. 468-471
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1964, La Sinagoga di Ostia, Rome
– Becatti G., 1969, Scavi di Ostia, 6. Edificio con opus sectile fuori Porta Marina, Rome: Instituto Poligrafico dello Stato
– Floriani Squarciapino M., 1972, “Plotius Fortunatus archisynagogus,” in: La Rassegna mensile di Israel, Vol. 36, pp. 183-191
– Zevi F., 1972, “La Sinagoga di Ostia,” in: Rassegna mensile di Israel, Vol. 38, pp. 131-145
– Meigss R., 1973, Roman Ostia, Oxford: Oxford University Press
– Kraabel, A.T., 1974, “Synagogues, Ancient,” in: New Catholic Encyclopedia Supplement, pp. 436-439
– Foerster G., 1981,“A survey of Ancient Diaspora Synagogues,” in: : Levine L. (ed.), Ancient Synagogues Revealed, Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society, pp. 164-171
– Kraabel, A.T., 1982a, “The Excavated Synagogues of Late Antiquity from Asia Minor to Italy,” in: Internationaler Bysantinistenkongress, Vol. 16.2.2, pp. 227-236
– Kraabel, A.T., 1982b, “The Roman Diaspora: Six Questionable Assumptions,” in: Journal of Jewish Studies, Vol. 33, pp. 445-464
– Boersma J., 1985, Amoenissima Civitas: Block 5.2 at Ostia, Description and Analysis of Visible Remains, Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum
– Fine, S.and Della Pergola S, 1995, “The Synagogue of Ostia and Its Torah Shrine,” in: J. Goodnick (ed.), The Jewish Presence in Ancient Rome, Jerusalem, pp. 42-57
– Kraabel, A.T., 1995, “The Diaspora Synagogue: Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence since Sukenik,” in: Urman, Dan and Flesher, Paul V.M. (eds.), Ancient Synagogues: Historical Analysis and Archaeological Discovery, Vol. 1, Leiden: Brill, pp. 95-126 (reprint)
– White M., 1997, “Synagogue and Society in Imperial Ostia: Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence,” in: The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 90, No. 1, pp. 23-58
– White M., 1998, “Synagogue and Society in Imperial Ostia. Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence,” in: K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.), Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome, Grand Rapids, pp. 30-68
– Binder D., 1999, Into the Temple Courts. The Place of the Synagogue in the Second Temple Period, Atlanta
– Runesson A., 1999, “The Oldest Original Synagogue Building in the Diaspora. A Response to L. Michael White,” in: Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 92, pp. 409-433
– White M., 1999, “Reading the Ostia synagogue: A reply to A. Runesson,” in: The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 92, No. 4, pp. 435-464
– Olsson B., Mitternacht D., and Brandt O. (eds.), 2001, The Synagogue of Ancient Ostia and the Jews of Rome, Stockholm
– Runesson A., 2002, “A Monumental Synagogue from the First Century,” in: Journal of Jewish Studies, Vol. 33, pp. 171-220
– Spagnoli E., 2007, “Evidenze numismatiche dal territorio di Ostia antica (età repubblicana- età flavia),” in: Presenza e crcolazione della monete in area vesuviana. Atti del XIII Convegno organizzato dal Centro internazionale di studi numismatici e dall’Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Napoli 30 maggio-1 giugno 2003, Rome: Instituto italiano di numismatica, pp. 233-388
– Williams D., 2014, “Digging in the Archives: A Late Roman Coin Assemblage from the Synagogue at Ancient Ostia (Italy),” in: American Journal of Numismatics, Vol. 26, pp. 245-273
– Nongbri B., 2015, “Archival Research on the Excavation of the Synagogue of Ostia: A Preliminary Report,” in: Journal for the Study of Judaism, Vol. 46, pp. 366-402

Website(s):

– The Ostia Foundation:
https://www.ostia-foundation.org/ostia-synagogue-series/
– Fasti Online:
http://www.fastionline.org/micro_view.php?itemkey=fst_cd&fst_cd=AIAC_2521
– The Ostia synagogue Area Excavations (OSMAP):
https://www.laits.utexas.edu/isac/web/OSMAP/OSMAP_Home.html
https://ostiasynagogue.wordpress.com/

Footnotes

[1029] These are the three phases as laid out by Maria Floriani Squarciapino and later researchers of the Ostia synagogue. However, renewed research by Birger Olsson, Dieter Mitternacht and Olof Brandt, as well as archaeological and archival research conducted by Brent Nongbri, as well as L. Michael White of the University of Texas at Austin under the auspices of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici di Ostia has revealed that these phases are no longer accurate. The synagogue building seems to have been in use between the first and fifth century and had many separate renovation or reconstruction phases, probably often only conducted in one area of the complex. Magness believes there is no definite evidence that the building was used as a synagogue before the 4^th century. However, because no final report of the new research has been published yet, I am following the old division of the architectural history of the building.

[1030] The synagogue was discovered by accident in 1961 during work on an expressway leading to the international airport of Fiumicino (Floriani Squarciapino 1963b, p. 195).

[1031] Based on Olsson et al. 2001, pp. 30-34, who base their analysis on the many published but often contradictory reports by Squarciapino. From their research, it is clear that there is still much confusion about the architectural history of the building and its precise dates. The intermediate phase and its date, for example, have not been treated as thoroughly as they should, and many features and measurements of the building are not mentioned at all (See also the debates between White and Runesson, who place different floor levels and installations found in Room G in different construction phases). Hopefully, the renewed excavations by UT Austin will provide much needed clarity on the history of the building.

[1032] Squarciapino 1963d, p. 469.

[1033] Perhaps this Phase had benches in rooms G and B, and this area acted as a triclinium (Runesson 1999 and 2002).

[1034] Olsson et al. 2001, p. 33.

[1035] Squarciapino 1963b, p. 200; White 1997, p. 31.

[1036] Squarciapino 1963b, p. 200; Squarciapino 1964, p. 24. Unfortunately, this is one of the excavated areas that is still very confusing. The archaeologists took out the rough, upper floor in this room completely, making it impossible to check how this floor connected with the oven and table. Was the table, for example, introduced later than the oven or at the same time? Were they both placed on top of the mosaic floor as Squarciapino claims, or were they placed on top of the cocciopesto floor, in which case they are older than the second phase of the building complex. Were there one or multiple cocciopesto floors in this area? (see also the debate between White and Runesson, in which White believes there were at least five different floors in Area G, and that the original building was not a synagogue, but a private two-story building with street-front shops). Patterns on the mosaics further suggest that at some point this room was divided by wooden walls into smaller sections, but we do not know the reason for this. Lamps found between the rough floor and the mosaic floor suggest a date for the rough floor in the 5th century. The coin deposit found underneath the mosaic has a terminus post quem of 340 CE, giving this floor a considerably later date than any date proposed by the excavators or later researchers. Perhaps the architectural history of the building needs to be divided up into many more phases than assumed. Renewed archaeological and archival research of the synagogue building by the University of Texas at Austin between 2000 and 2010 will hopefully shed more light on these issues, as already demonstrated by Nongbri’s preliminary report from 2015 (Nongbri 2015, pp. 380-381).

[1037] Williams 2014, p. 246. See her article for an overview of what happened to the coins after their discovery.

[1038] Nongbri 2015, p. 380, note 41: Nongbri gives the report on the find as it was written in the Giornali by Floriani Squarciapino on June 7, 1962. The translation from Italian to English is mine.

[1039] Squarciapino 1963b, p. 201; White 1997 and 1999; Runesson 1999 and 2002.

[1040] Williams 2014, p. 247: she notes that, “Unfortunately, it has not been possible to retrieve the actual group of specimens from the synagogue, which leaves the card catalogue in the archives (ex ASBAO) as the only record of their existence (record 9-59).” The catalogue was published in Italian: the English translations are mine.

[1041] Williams 2014, p. 248. Unfortunately, the bibliography only refers to the 1888 coin catalogue of Cohen, Description historique des monnaies frappées sous l’empire romain communément appelées médailles imperials, which is outdated.

[1042] Only one belongs to the heavier series: Constantine I, 327-328 CE (3.1 grams, with Constantine in military dress on the reverse).

[1043] Williams believes they were accidental losses because “of the deposit’s small size, together with the fact that they were actually found embedded in the preparation layer of the mosaic floor” (Williams 2014, p. 249).

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

2007-2012

Excavator(s):

Uzi Leibner

Archaeological Information: Area A, Stratum II

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: first half 3rd century [844]
Phase II: end of the 3rd -beginning 4th century [845]

Place of Building in Settlement:
At the center of the site on a steep slope: the building sits partly on top of houses. [846]

Building Description:
Phase I: A basilica with two rows of four columns, in a northwest-southeast direction and a transverse row of three columns on the northwest side.[847] There was one entrance in the southeast wall, one door above the benches in the northwest wall, and one door in the southwest wall leading to a side room. There were two tiers of benches along the northwest, northeast, and southwest walls in white limestone (giving this building the nickname “the white synagogue”). There might have been a second-story gallery.[848] The synagogue was severely damaged in the late 3^rd century when its entire eastern half collapsed. Phase II: The synagogue was renovated and partially rebuilt into a nearly square-shaped plan, and its floors were now covered with a mosaic floor with biblical scenes and Hebrew inscriptions. At some later point this floor was covered again by several plaster floors. A new set of benches was installed, made of basalt (giving this building the nickname “the black synagogue”). A bemah was added on top of the mosaic floor against the southeast wall during a renovation (Sub-Phase IIb).

Maps and Plans

Other Materials

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 2007-2009

Deposit Location:

In the east wall of the synagogue building.

Archaeological Information:

Area A, Phase I, Room A11N, wall W2A15a

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Unknown

Deposit Type: II?3

Deposit Description:

To the north-east of the synagogue, two structures were discovered on top of each other, built against the east wall of the synagogue. On top of these structures lay the collapse of the upper east wall of the synagogue building (W2A15a). A few building stones were found sitting upright, left where they had fallen. Throughout this debris of building blocks, roof tiles, and rubble, concentrations of coins were exposed, predominantly in front of the face of eastern wall W2A15b.[849] The coins were dispersed along a vertical descent of 1.14 m in height (going gown from 95.90 to 94.76 meters), in successive loci from the middle of L 5A020 to L 5A038. Each coin was measured and their spatial distribution plotted on a GIS map. A total of 37 coins, mainly third century tetradrachms and denarii, were retrieved. The dispersal of the coins indicates that they fell through the stones when the eastern wall collapsed. According to the excavators, the most plausible origin of the hoard is that it had been hidden in the east wall of the synagogue, and that the hoard was assembled from coins circulating at the site, most probably reflecting the savings of the congregation.[850]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
The 37 coins found in a deposit in the synagogue at Khirbet Wadi Hamam were published in full by Gabriela Bijovsky in Uzi Leibner’s 2018 final excavation report.[851] Of the 37 coins, 29 are silver, including 15 Roman provincial tetradrachms from the 3^rd century CE and 14 imperial denarii and their debased version, Antoniniani[852]. 8 coins are bronze. The coin deposit ranges from 103 BCE until 268 CE, with the earliest coins being two Hasmonean prutot (one of Alexander Jannaeus, both struck in Jerusalem).[853] The following coins are two denarii of Trajan (dated 103-111 CE and 112-117 CE, both minted in Rome), a small bronze coin of Antoninus Pius minted in Bostra (138-161 CE), and two denarii from Rome minted by Marcus Aurelius (163-164 CE) and Septimius Severus (200-202 CE). Four more coins, three denarii and a bronze coin, are too worn to be dated but their size and fabric suggest a second century CE date. Most coins of the deposit, however, can be dated to the first half of the 3^rd century CE (62%): seven coins minted by Caracalla (four imperial denarii minted in Rome and three Syrian tetradrachms struck in Tyre and Damascus),[854] eleven coins minted by Elagabalus (all Syrian tetradrachms minted in Antioch. Possibly, there are two more Elagabalus coins: two bronze coins minted in Capitolias[855] and Neapolis), two bronze coins of Severus Alexander (struck in Bostra), and a Syrian tetradrachm of Gordian III (struck in Antioch in 240 CE). After this, there is a gap of about 15 years and then a group of three Antoniniani of Gallienus minted in Rome (253-268 CE). Interestingly, this deposit does not contain any coins of the 4^th century, nor any coins minted in Constantinople, Alexandria, or Cyzicus.[856]

Coins

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Wadi Hamam, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Ilan Z., 1991, Ancient Synagogues in Israel, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, pp. 128-129 (Hebrew)
– Leibner U., 2009, Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee: An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 71-74, 205-212
– Leibner U., 2010, “Excavations at Khirbet Wadi Hamam (Lower Galilee): The Synagogue and the Settlement,” in: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 220-237
– Leibner U. & Miller S., 2010, “A figural Mosaic in the Synagogue at Khirbet Wadi Hamam,”in: Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 238-264
– Magness J., 2012, “The Pottery from the Village of Capernaum and the Chronology of Galilean Synagogues,” in: Tel Aviv, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 110-122
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 320-323
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 57, 64-66, 150, 177, 178, 332, 407-412, 493-494, 547, 594
– Leibner U., 2015, “Khirbet Wadi Hamam in the Early and Middle Roman Periods,” in: Fiensy D. & Strange J. (eds.), Galilee in the Late Second Temple and Mishnaic Periods: Volume 2: The Archaeological Record from Cities, Towns, and Villages, Fortress Press, pp. 343-361
– Leibner U., 2018, Khirbet Wadi Hamam, A Roman-Period Village and Synagogue in the Lower Galilee, Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
– Leibner U., 2020, “The Dating of the “Galilean”-Type Synagogues: Khirbet Wadi Hamam as a Case-Study,” in: Doerig L. and Krause A.R. (eds.), Synagogues in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. Archaeological Finds, New Methods, New Theories, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pp. 43-69

Website(s):

– The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/wadi-hamam/
– The Hebrew University of Jerusalem:
https://scholars.huji.ac.il/uzileibner/wadi-hamam

Footnotes

[844] This date is based on the middle Roman pottery, oil lamps, and coins from below the floor (Leibner 2018, p. 94; 2020, pp. 52-54) However, Jodi Magness believes that the entire building was constructed during the 4^th century: she bases her assessment on the appearance of Galilean bowls (form 1C-1E) and Kefar Hananya ware at the site, which she argues give a terminus post quem of the 4^th century, as well as on a coin (cat. No. 335) found in building A11N (see below), which is dated to 383-385 CE (Magness 2012a, p. 113; Magness 2019a, pp. 428-430; Magness and Schindler, forthcoming).

[845] Based on finds discovered in a drainage channel under the floor, in the mosaic foundations, and in the foundation trenches of the new walls (Leibner 2018, p. 96). However, coins found embedded inside the bemah and the plaster floor provide, according to Magness, a terminus post quem at the end of the 4^th century for the addition of the bemah and the building’s renovation, or the second phase of the building (Magness 2012a, p. 113; Magness and Schindler, forthcoming).

[846] The ruins were first identified in the 19^th century by the Survey of Western Palestine. In 1925, Joseph Braslavsky was the first to identify architectural elements at the site that might point towards a “Galiliean”-type synagogue. The architectural remains were surveyed in 1946 by Na’im Makhouly, in the 1970s and 1980s by Gideon Avni and Zvi Ilan, and in the 1980s by Yuval Shahar and Yigal Tepper. In 2007, excavations were started by Uzi Leibner under the auspices of the Hebrew University (Leibner 2018, pp. 7-8).

[847] This was the second public building built on this spot. The first synagogue was presumably constructed in the first half of the first century, but only parts of this buildings have been preserved (Leibner 2015, pp. 348-350, Stratum III).

[848] Leibner 2018, pp. 94-95.

[849] Leibner 2018, p. 86.

[850] Bijovsky 2018, p. 527. According to the excavators, there was no bemah yet during the first phase of the synagogue and perhaps this was the location of a niche in the wall which contained the synagogue’s savings deposit or treasury. In my opinion, however, this was a charity hoard. See chapter 4.3.2.

[851] Leibner 2018, pp. 527-530. This overview is based on her analysis.

[852] Also sometimes called “radiate,” see Bland 2012.

[853] Bijovsky notes that they seem “intrusive or residual in character”.

[854] Bijvovsky notes that unlike the Roman provincial bronzes that were primarily intended for circulation in the immediate geographical vicinity, Syrian tetradrachms were issued for wide distribution for fiscal and military needs. Based on numismatic evidence, Antioch and Tyre were the main mints to supply Syrian tetradrachms to Palestine from the first to mid-third centuries CE (Leibner 2018, p. 529).

[855] Coins from the Capitolias mint in Jordan are very rare in Palestine. Bijovsky mentions only four other coins registered in the database: one found at Hammath Gader, one at Hammath Tiberias, and two of unknown provenance (Leibner 2018, p. 578, note 41).

[856] It is hard to say how much the silver coin deposit was worth: numismatists debate the value of bronze and silver coins under different emperors in Late Antiquity. Theoretically, a tetradrachm would be roughly four times a denarius, but because of rapid debasement in the third century CE, it likely did not have as much buying power as that (by 270 CE, a silver coin was basically a small billion coin with only 1 per cent silver). In fact, this is the reason why silver coins of earlier periods were still around: they had a higher percentage of silver than the contemporaneous ones and hence were saved.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1983-1990

Excavator(s):

Shimon Dar

Archaeological Information: Area 1, Phase V and IV

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: 3^rd century[951]
Phase II: 5^th-7^th century[952]

Place of Building in Settlement:
At about two-thirds of the way up the south slope of the Sumaqa hill, not noticeable above its surroundings. [953]

Building Description:
Phase I (=Phase V on the excavation site): A basilica building with two rows of five columns. There were three entrances in the eastern façade wall. The floor was covered in coarse chalk and plaster. Phase II (=Phase IV on the excavation site): The hall was made smaller by “thickening” the south and north walls. Part of the north entrance in the east wall was blocked by a new bench along the north wall. Some changes were also made to the western side of the building, including creating a courtyard surrounded by small rooms, but the exact plan is unclear. At some point, a narthex was added to the east of the main hall, with a bench and a platform identified as a bemah by the northern wall.[954] According to the excavators, it is unclear if this building was still used as a synagogue, although two menorah inscriptions found elsewhere in the settlement suggest a continuous Jewish settlement.[955] The floor was covered with stone slabs.

Maps and Plans

Other Materials

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1983-1990

Deposit Location:

Between the stone paving slabs in the narthex

Archaeological Information:

Phase II, Locus 1 and Locus 151

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

Based on the different publications on the Sumaqa synagogue and the coins discovered, determining the number of coins found in the eastern narthex as well as their exact locus can be very confusing. In his first preliminary reports, Shimon Dar mentions that “between the stone paving slabs in Locus 151 a hoard of six interfused coins was found.”[956] In the final report published in 1999, however, he describes Locus 151 as a “thick layer of remains dating to the medieval period” on top of the floor.[957] On page 22, Dar mentions that a deposit of six coins was found between the paving slabs of the flagstone floor in the northern area of the eastern narthex of the synagogue belonging to Locus 286. But on page 28 Dar mentions that there were thirty 5^th-, six 6^th– and one 7^th– century coins found between the cracks of the paving stones in the narthex of the synagogue in Locus 286.
To make things even more confusing, in the coin catalogue by Arie Kindler, in Appendix 6 of the excavation report, no coins are mentioned from Locus 286. Instead, he mentions three coins from Locus 151 (No. 11, 17, and 22, dated to the 4^th century). However, the description of the coins in the 1999 report according to which “The earliest coin was one of Justin II (565-578 CE) and the latest of Heraclius I (610-641 CE), minted in Nicomedia in 618/619 CE” were found between the cracks of the narthex floor, corresponds best to the coins attributed to Locus 1 in the final numismatic report: Nos. 56, 57, 58, and 59. This locus is described as another layer of remains dated to the medieval period on top of the floor. It is thus unclear which coins were found between the pavement stones of the synagogue, and which came from a layer on top of the floor.

After personal communications, things became a bit clearer. The thirty coins mentioned in the 1999 publication were erroneously attributed Locus 286: this is an incorrect translation from Hebrew to English and should be three coins. Furthermore, Locus 286 contained a small hoard of 7 coins, but this group is not associated with the synagogue but with a later phase: the medieval layer on top of the floor. Finally, Loci 1, 151, and 286 were indeed the same area of the building, but each number indicates a different season of work. Only Locus 1 and Locus 151 indicate the same context: the pavement of the northern area of the eastern narthex. Here, a total of 11 coins was discovered between the stones. This is the coin deposit that is described as “the hoard coming from in between the paving slabs of the Byzantine synagogue of Horvat Sumaqa.”

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
Currently, the Sumaqa coins are held by one of the former field supervisors of the Sumaqa excavations, Yigal ben Ephraim, who lives on a kibbutz in the Golan. I was able to visit the kibbutz in the fall of 2019 and look at the coins myself. After going through hundreds of coins, I was able to find 6 from Locus 1 that seem to fit the descriptions given by Arie Kindler, and another 5 from Locus 151 or the pavement in the northern part of the eastern narthex. No envelopes were found that indicate coins from Locus 286. Thus, this database contains information on 11 coins from the Sumaqa narthex deposit.[958]
The eleven coins have a broad range in dates, from 318-320 CE to 610-613 CE, with five coins from the 4^th century, three from the 6^th century, and three from the 7^th century (it did not contain any coins from the 5^th century). However, there are clearly two clusters, with all the 4^th century coins coming from Locus 151, and the 6^th-7^th century coins coming from Locus 1; perhaps these were separate groups after all? The coins from Locus 151 are of Constantine I, Constantius I and Constantius Gallus, while the coins of Locus 1 can be attributed to Justin II, Maurice (Tiberius), and Heraclius I. All the coins are from eastern mints, except for one Constantius II coin from Rome.

Coins

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Sumaqa, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1983-1990

Deposit Location:

In a small, natural cave underneath the northern part of the west wall

Archaeological Information:

Locus 171

Certain association with the building itself? No

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IA2

Deposit Description:

A small, natural cave measuring 2.10 X 2.40 meters and 1.70 meters high was discovered under the northern part of the west wall (W15) of the building.[959] Inside the cave stood a row of ashlars, five stones long and three stones high, of the same make-up as the other walls of the building. The cave was full of yellowish-grey chalk, typical of the region, together with a group of metal, bone, and stone vessels. These objects include a bronze cosmetics spoon, a bone cosmetic stick, a bronze pin, a spindle whorl of black stone, iron working tools, two large nails with a rectangular cross-section, and three coins dated to the first half of the 4^th century. It seems that the entire assemblage is contemporary in date. According to the excavators, the workmen constructing the building could have filled the cave with rubble and blocked it, but they did not. Was the cave still in use at the same time as the synagogue?

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
The three coins from Locus 171 appear in the coin catalogue of the final publication.[960] However, only limited data are provided: emperor, minting place, and reverse type. All three coins can be dated to the 4^th century, including a coin of Licinius II (Antioch) and a coin of Constantius II.[961] According to the excavators, all the coins from the synagogue at Sumaqa are kept at the house of Yigal ben Ephraim, but after checking (and double-checking), there were no coin envelopes from Locus 171. It is unclear what happened to these coins.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Sumaqa, Deposit 2. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Hüttenmeister F. & Reeg G., 1977, Die Antiken Synagogen in Israel, 2 vols., Wiesbaden: L. Reichert, pp. 419-420
– Chiat M., 1982, Handbook of Synagogue Architecture, Chico: Scholars Press, pp. 161-163
– Dar S., 1988, “Horvat Sumaqa: Settlement from the Roman and Byzantine Periods in the Carmel,” in: Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society, Vol. 8, pp. 34-48
– Dar. S. & Mintzker Y., 1989, “The synagogue of Horvat Sumaqa,” in: Hachlili R. (ed.), Ancient Synagogues in Israel: Third-Seventh century C.E., BAR International Series 449, Oxford, pp. 17-20
– Ilan Z., 1991, Ancient Synagogues in Israel, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, pp. 231-233 (Hebrew)
– Dar S., 1993, “Horvat Sumaqa,” in: NEAEHL, pp. 1412-1415
– Dar S. & Mintzker Y., 1995, “The Synagogue of Horvat Sumaqa, 1983-1993,” in: Urman D. & Flesher P. (eds.), Ancient Synagogues: Historical Analysis and Archaeological Discovery, Vol. 1, Leiden: Brill, pp. 157-165
– Dar S., 1998, Sumaqa: A Jewish Village on the Carmel, Tel Aviv (Hebrew)
– Dauphin C. 1998, La Palestine Byzantine: Peuplement et Population, Oxford, Vol. 3, pp. 690-691
– Dar S., 1999, Sumaqa: A Roman and Byzantine Village on Mount Carmel, BAR International Series 815, Israel: Archaeopress
– Turnheim Y., 1999, “The Design and the Architectural Ornaments of the Synagogue at Horvat Sumaqa,” in: Sumaqa: A Roman and Byzantine Village on Mount Carmel, BAR International Series 815, Israel: Archaeopress, pp. 233-261
– Milson D., 2007, Art and Architecture of the Synagogue in Late Antique Palestine: in the Shadow of the Church, Leiden/Boston, pp. 402-404
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 248-251
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 122-124, 442, 553-554

Website(s):

The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/sumaqa/

Footnotes

[951] However, this date is mainly based on the synagogue’s architecture and its comparison to other synagogues in the Hellenistic-Roman world (Dar 1999, p. 31). The numismatic evidence suggests a later date. The coins found in cave Locus 171, for example, date to the 4^th century and were found next to the foundation wall of the building (see below). If they were placed there before or at the same time as the construction of the first phase of the building, then the synagogue should date to middle of the 4^th century or later.

[952] Dar 1999, p. 32: “It is reasonable to assign the second phase to a period extending between the fifth and the first half of the seventh centuries AD.” No further explanations for this construction date are given in the publication report. However, field supervisor Yigal Ben Ephraim believes that the first phase building was destroyed in a fire in 408 CE, based on the dates of coins from under a burnt destruction layer found around the site, perhaps connected to one of the Samaritan revolts (personal communication). This provides a possible terminus post quem for the second phase of the building, but would contradict the numismatic evidence from cave Locus 171.

[953] The site of Sumaqa has attracted visitors and researchers since Victor Guérin described the site, including the synagogue, in 1870. The building and surrounding areas was subsequently researched by the British Survey of Western Palestine in 1873, Laurence Oliphant in the 1880s, Kohl and Watzinger in 1905 and 1916, von Mülinen in 1908, the staff of the Mandatory Department of Antiquities in 1929, Frankel in 1954, Zaharoni and Weger in 1966, the Archaeological Survey of Israel in 1968, Gideon Foerster in 1972, Hüttenmeister and Reeg in 1977, and Kloner and Olami in 1980. Comprehensive excavations of the building, however, were only started by Shimon Dar in 1983 (Dar 1988, p. 34; Dar 1999, pp. 8-10, p. 17).

[954] I do not believe that this platform was used as a bemah as no other examples of bemot have been found in synagogues in Israel/Palestine in a narthex or side room of the building instead of in the main hall. Perhaps it was the location of a handwashing installation or a platform for a menorah?

[955] Dar 1999, p. 32 notes “perhaps only a part of the building was used as a synagogue, and the other parts, including the courtyard and the additional rooms, as residential areas. This is suggested by the mixture of common pottery with large quantities of bones of edible animals found there.” Field supervisor Yigal Ben Ephraim does not believe this second phase building was still a synagogue (personal communication).

[956] Dar and Mintzker 1989, p. 19.

[957] Dar 1999, p. 25. In Dar’s article from 1988 he mentions that “a small coin hoard was discovered in a gap between the poorly-laid paving stones close to the façade of the synagogue” (Dar 1988, p. 40).

[958] I would like to thank Yigal Ben Ephraim for opening his house to me, and Yaniv Sfez from the IAA for being my Hebrew translator during the meeting and for his help with the identification of these coins.

[959] Dar 1999, p. 23; p. 29.

[960] Dar 1998, p. 377 (Hebrew); Dar 1999, p. 350, coins analyzed by Arie Kindler.

[961] In this catalogue, the reign of these emperors is given as a minting date. Further analysis of these coins would probably give a more exact date.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1970-1972

Excavator(s):

Eric Meyers, Thomas Kraabel, and James Strange

Archaeological Information: Fields NE VII-NW VII

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: 284 CE
Phase II: 306 CE [761]

Place of Building in Settlement:
On the first terrace below the ancient village. [762]

Building Description:
Phase I: An east-west broadhouse synagogue with two rows of four columns. There was a grand entrance at the south end of the west wall, and a second entrance in the western half of the north wall at the top of two-meter-wide stairs. Remains of single benches were found along the north and south walls. [763] Huge quantities of loose tesserae suggest a mosaic floor. An upper gallery was located on the west side of the building, with a room underneath decorated with colorful frescoes (the “Frescoed Room”). At the south end of the hall is an entrance to a small hewn room beneath the monumental staircase, identified by the excavators as a genizah. Phase II: The layout of the building stayed the same but a bemah was added on top of the benches along the south wall. The form of the columns, pedestals, and capitals in the main hall changed as well.

Maps and Plans

Other Materials

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1971-1972

Deposit Location:

Chamber

Archaeological Information:

Area Northwest I:32, Locus 28 and 30

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA2

Deposit Description:

A chamber was discovered under stairs from the western side room leading into the synagogue proper.[764] The floor level of the chamber is only slightly below that of the synagogue floor, so that the chamber is not under the main room of the synagogue but next to it. Its entrance at the time of discovery was on the north side of the chamber: a square opening of 55 cm wide, 56 cm high, and 38 cm above the floor of the side room (or, the “Frescoed Room”) of the hall of the synagogue. However, the chamber was previously oriented towards the east. The original opening was a square, horizontal shaft measuring 61 cm in height and width. The bottom surface, which is still preserved, was 37 cm above the chamber floor and 104 cm below the ceiling. The bedrock above the northern part of this entrance was broken through at a later date, making a much larger, irregular opening which at the time of discovery was blocked on the inside with rough ashlars, and on the east side, by stairs which led into the main hall from the western side room. The bedrock dips down on the northern and eastern sides of the chamber and becomes relatively thin over the eastern and later northern entrances; according to the excavators, it is likely that the damage to the eastern opening was caused during the construction of the stairway and that the rough ashlars had to be laid in the opening to provide support for the staircase. There are no indications that this originally was a natural cave; it appears to have been cut out of solid bedrock and to have had some function from the beginning. The excavators suggest it was part of the industrial installations that were found here and which were used before the synagogue was constructed. Once the synagogue was built, the chamber was integrated into the complex and became an integral part of it. With its low ceiling and awkward entrance, the excavators believe that it was suitable only for “dead storage,” or a genizah. The access to the chamber could be carefully controlled; the small opening could have been covered with something to restrict access to it. It was probably in use during the first phase, as well as the second phase of the synagogue’s history (Strata II-IV).
Inside the chamber, five large pieces of glass were discovered as well as some smaller fragments, an oil lamp fragment, and 13 coins. Because the chamber had been sealed, it is likely that all these pieces were placed there intentionally. When the chamber was discovered, a fault that developed in the bedrock after the site was abandoned caused the room to flood with water.[765] More than 150 buckets of water had to be removed from the chamber during excavations, and most of the fill consisted of mud that had to be dried first before it could be broken up and sifted for materials. These conditions unfortunately caused all organic materials that might have been there (e.g. documents, wooden objects, mats, even some coins), to be destroyed. Furthermore, the room had been used by squatters long after the synagogue had gone out of use: pieces of Islamic pottery attest to this use at a later stage.

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
No full analysis of these coins was published in the final excavation report (Meyers et al. 1976). Instead, Richard Hanson and Michael L. Bates picked out some noteworthy examples found in diverse loci around the site, organized by period.[766] In the written description of the genizah, the coins are described as dated to the middle or late 4^th century, with the exception of R1550 (183-192 CE) and R1551 (98-117 CE). The catalogue in the back indicates 13 coins coming from Loci 29 and 30, indicating size, emperor, date, and where possible, type.[767] These seem to be the coins from the chamber, as they include R1550 and R1551. However, R1550 is identified as a SALVS REIPVBLICAE coin, possibly minted under Valentinian II and dated to 383-392 CE.[768] At the IAA, only one coin could be located from Locus 28: R1551, minted under Trajan. It is unclear what happened to the other 12 coins.[769]

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table H. Shema', Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Meyers E., 1972, “Horvat Shema’, the Settlement and the Synagogue,” in Qadmoniyot, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 58-61 (Hebrew)
– Meyers E., Kraabel A.T., and Strange J., 1972a, “Archaeology and Rabbinic Traditions at Khirbet Shema’: 1970 and 1971 Campaigns,” in: Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 1-31
– Meyers E., Kraabel A.T., and Strange J., 1972b, “Khirbet Shema’ and Meiron,” in: Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 174-176
– Meyers E., Kraabel A.T., and Strange J., 1976, Ancient Synagogue Excavations at Khirbet Shema’, Upper Galilee, Israel 1970-1972, North Carolina: Duke University Press
– Meyers E.M., 1981, “The synagogue at Horvat Shema’,” in: Ancient Synagogues Revealed, Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society pp. 70-74
– Magness J., 1997, “Synagogue Typology and Earthquake chronology at Khirbet Shema’,” in: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 211-220
– Strange J., 2001, “Synagogue Typology and Khirbet Shema’: A Response to Jodi Magness,” in: Neusner J. & Avery-Peck A. (eds.), Judaism in Late Antiquity, Part Three, Volume 4: Where We Stand: Issues and Debates in Ancient Judaism, the Special Problem of the Synagogue, Leiden: Brill, pp. 71-78
– Bijovsky G., 2009, “Numismatic Report,” in: Meyers E. & Meyers C., Excavations at Ancient Nabratein: Synagogue and Environs, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, pp. 384-386
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 101-119, 247-248
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 57, 73, 154, 177, 180, 553, 586, 588-589

Website(s):

-The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/shema/
– Virtual World Project:
http://moses.creighton.edu/vr/Shema/site.html

Footnotes

[761] These two phases are based on the identification of materials associated with the first building that was buried and thus isolated by the rebuilding of the synagogue after the earthquake of 306 CE (Meyers et al. 1976, p. 33, p. 38). Magness, however, suggests that there was only one phase and that it was constructed not earlier than the late 4^th century or even the early 5^th century, based on the ceramics and coins found in sealed loci (Magness 1997, p. 215, 218; see also Netzer 1996). Meyers denies this (Meyers 1976, pp. 34-37), stating that the later material found in sealed loci under the floor, especially a coin dated to Gratian, is an indication of renovations to the floor in the late 4^th century, probably necessitated because of rain erosion. Whatever the case, the coin deposit found in a chamber of the synagogue is associated with the second phase of the building when the synagogue was still in use in the late 4^th century or early 5^th century.

[762] Ancient literature talks about the site as “Teqo’a,” and Meyers has proposed that this site was a suburb or satellite settlement of ancient Meiron, whose synagogue inspired the one at Khirbet Shema’ (Meyers et al. 1976, pp. 12-16).

[763] The excavators suggest there were benches all around the room.

[764] A full description of this chamber can be found in Meyers et al. 1976, pp. 42-45.

[765] Meyers et al. 1976, p. 77.

[766] Hanson and Bates, in Meyers et al. 1976, pp. 146-169.

[767] Hanson, in Meyers et al. 1976, pp. 281-289.

[768] Thus, there seems to be a discrepancy between the written report and the catalogue. For this project, the analysis from the catalogue have been followed, but no weight, sizes, and axis were provided for any of the coins.

[769] When contacting Meyers, he told me he was under the impression the IAA had the coins and all the information, thus it is unclear where something went wrong. An original coin register list, as well as field notes of the Horvat Shema’ excavations are currently stored at the Duke Archives in the Rubenstein Library of Duke University. However, because of the COVID-19 pandemic, this archive was closed all through 2020-21 and I was unable to make an appointment to see these notes and look for more details on the coins.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1974-1980

Excavator(s):

Fanny Vitto

Archaeological Information: /

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: beginning 4th century [925]
Phase II: end 4th century- beginning 5th century [926]
Phase III: 6th century [926]

Place of Building in Settlement:
Building set off from surrounding dwellings by a street. [928]

Building Description:
Phase I: This was a basilica with two rows of five columns. There were three doors in the north wall and one door in the east wall. There was a mosaic floor of which only portions of the borders in the aisles have been preserved. Phase II: A bemah was added by the south wall with steps on the western and eastern sides. The floor was covered with mosaics of high quality showing geometrical designs and the columns were decorated with Hebrew and Aramaic inscriptions. Phase III: Many renovations and modifications were carried out in the building until it was destroyed in the 7th century. A narthex was added to the northern side of the building with a mosaic floor and inscriptions. The bemah was widened, the side steps were filled in, and two sets of steps were added to the northern side. The bemah probably had a chancel screen in front of it. The mosaic floor underwent considerable repairs. Benches were built over the previous mosaic floor against the east and west walls. The entrances to the building remained the same.

Maps and Plans

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1968

Deposit Location:

Surface find

Archaeological Information:

/

Certain association with the building itself? No

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA4

Deposit Description:

A local kibbutz member found 28 Byzantine gold coins in a clay box during preparation for cultivation of a plot of land on which the Arab village of Farwana had stood until 1948. [929]  Together with the coins were fragments of a chancel screen with a depiction of a seven-branched menorah. The deposit was found a few meters south of the south wall of the synagogue.

Container Present? Yes: clay box

Description of Coins:
The gold coins found in a box at Rehob were first analyzed in 1969 by Abraham Paltiel. He identified 16 coins of Heraclius I, 7 coins of Constans II, 3 coins of Constantine IV, and one coin of Justinian II, for a total of 27 coins. [930] He dated all the coins between 630 and 685 CE. However, the coins were re-analyzed by Gabriela Bijovsky in 2012, who provided a more up-to-date interpretation. At the moment, 10 coins are registered at the IAA, while the rest remain in the possession of the member of Kibbutz ‘En ha-Naziv who found the deposit. According to Bijovsky, all the coins are gold solidi struck by emperors of the 7th century: 14 coins of Heraclius I, 9 of Constans II, 4 of Constantine IV, and one of Justinian II, for a total of 28 coins ranging from 613/616 CE to 686/687 CE. Coins of Justinian II are a rare find in Palestine: this is the only synagogue deposit that contains a coin from this emperor. All the coins were minted in Constantinople and are common types, although one of the solidi of Constans II is a light-weight solidus of 23 siliquae, weighing 4.17 grams (instead of 4.30 grams for a normal solidus).

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Rehob, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1974

Deposit Location:

Under the rubble of a collapsed wall west of the Torah shrine

Archaeological Information:

/

Certain association with the building itself? Unknown

Deposit Retrievable? Unknown

Deposit Type: II?5

Deposit Description:

14 Arab-Byzantine copper coins, apparently wrapped in cloth, were found beneath the rubble of a collapsed wall separating the western aisle from a small room west of the bemah. [931]

Container Present? Yes: cloth

Description of Coins:
The 14 Arab-Byzantine bronze coins found during the excavation of the synagogue at Rehob in the 1970s have not been published yet. In her 2012 article on the gold coin deposit, Bijovsky writes that they will be published by Nitzan Amitai-Preiss as part of the final report, but this has not appeared yet. [932] The only information we have on these coins is that there are one “Arab-Byzantine 1” series coin (circa 647-670 CE) and 13 “Arab-Byzantine 2” series coins (circa 670-690 CE), divided into the following groups: two coins from Damascus, one “Lazy S” type, five Pseudo-Damascus coins, and five al-wafā lillāh coins. These dates correspond to the Deposit 1 dates, making the deposits contemporaneous: they represent two different currencies in circulation during the second half of the 7th century: imperial Byzantine gold coinage and provincial bronze coinage.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Rehob, Deposit 2. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Paltiel A., 1969, “A Hoard of Byzantine Gold Coins from the Town of Rehov,” in: Israel Numismatic Bulletin, Vol. 3, pp. 101-106 (Hebrew)
– Vitto F., 1974, “Ancient Synagogue at Rehov,” in: ‘Atiqot, vol. 7, pp. 17-18 (English summary), 100-104 (Hebrew)
– Vitto F., 1975, “The Synagogue of Rehov,” in: Qadmoniyot, Vol. 8, pp. 119-123 (Hebrew)
– Vitto. F., 1980, “The Synagogue of Rehov, 1980,” in: Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 30, No. 3-4, pp. 214-217
– Vitto F., 1981, “A Byzantine Synagogue in the Beth She’an Valley,” in: Avraham, Biran (ed.), Temples and High places in Biblical Times, Jerusalem: Hebrew Union College, pp. 164-167
– Sussman J., 1981, “The Inscription in the Synagogue at Rehob,” in: Ancient Synagogues Revealed, Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society, pp. 146-153
– Vitto F., 1981, “The Synagogue at Rehob,” in: Ancient Synagogues Revealed, Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society, pp. 90-94
– Chiat M., 1982, Handbook of Synagogue Architecture, Chico: Scholars Press, pp. 138-144
– Chen D., 1986,“The Design of the Ancient Synagogues in Galilee, III,” in: Liber Annuus, Vol. 36, pp. 235-240
– Ilan Z., 1991, Ancient Synagogues in Israel, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, pp. 168-189 (Hebrew)
– Vitto F., 1993, “Rehob,” in: NEAEHL, pp. 1272-1274
– Dauphin C. 1998, La Palestine Byzantine: Peuplement et Population, Oxford, Vol. 3, pp. 785-786
– Milson D., 2007, Art and Architecture of the Synagogue in Late Antique Palestine: in the Shadow of the Church, Leiden/Boston, pp. 456-461
– Bijovsky G., 2012, “A Byzantine Gold Hoard from Rehob (H. Parwa),” in: Israel Numismatic Research, Vol. 7, pp. 147-158
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 297-301
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 177, 181-182, 213, 249, 520-521, 552
– Vitto F., 2015, “Wall Paintings in the Synagogue of Rehov: An Account of Their Discovery,” in: The Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology, Vol. 7, pp. 1-12

Website(s):

– The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/rehob/

Footnotes

[925] Based on “architectural fragments together with coins and ceramic finds” (Vitto 1980, p. 215) However, no final report on this excavation has been published to verify these dates.

[926] Based on “style of the mosaic pavement, the coins and the pottery” (Vitto 1980, p. 215).

[927] Based on pottery sherds found below the mosaic inscription of the third phase of the building (Vitto 1980, p. 217).

[928] The synagogue was discovered in 1969, when during agricultural land preparations various architectural fragments of the building, including pieces of a marble chancel screen, came to light (Vitto 1982, p. 90).

[929] In her 1982 report, Vitto mentions 27 coins, and 27 were also analyzed by Paltiel in 1969. However, Bijovksy analyzes 28 coins from Rehob in her 2012 publication: coin No. 5 in her catalogue does not appear in Paltiel’s catalogue. It is unclear where this coin came from (perhaps two coins were stuck together?).

[930] Paltiel 1969, pp. 104-105.

[931] Bijovsky 2012, p. 148. Vitto refers to this hoard as the “money-pouch” in her publications.

[932] Bijovsky 2012, p. 148, footnote 2. In the fall of 2019, I reached out to Amitai-Preiss as well as to Fanny Vitto, the director of the excavations at Rehob, to ask about the progress on the analysis of these coins and if I could use the unpublished analysis for this project. They responded that I was allowed to look at the bronze coins and analyze them myself, on condition that this would only be for an internal thesis and not for publication, including not online. Since this dissertation will be available online, however, and after consultation with Donald Ariel of the IAA, I decided not to include the unpublished information on these coins in my database. The information that I do provide here can be found in Bijovsky 2012.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1981-1986

Excavator(s):

Zvi Ilan and Emanuel Damati

Archaeological Information: /

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: end 4th century-beginning 5th century [734]
Phase II: early 7th century [735]

Place of Building in Settlement:
At the highest point of the village, on the site of a quarry, with terraced houses below. [736]

Building Description:
Phase I: (= Stage IA-IB and II) A basilica with two rows of six columns. The building had a plaster floor that at some point was overlaid with a mosaic floor (possibly in the late 5^th century)[737] and overlaid again with a flagstone floor during a renovation phase (= Stage II).[738] The east and west walls had two tiers of benches, and by the south wall were two raised platforms. There were three entrances in the south wall, a door in the west wall leading to a storeroom, and a door in the east wall leading to an outer courtyard with a cistern.[739] The western storeroom was four meters long with a vaulted ceiling. In front of the south entrances stood a colonnaded portico. The building was roofed with plaster and roof tiles. Under the floor of the synagogue, in the southwestern area, were six underground rooms including one with a miqveh. During the 6^th century renovation phase, new benches were built on top of the old ones to accommodate the raised flagstone floor. The platforms were enlarged and a stairway was added to the western wall that led to an upper gallery. Phase II: (= Stage III) The building was shortened by moving the north wall 1.3 m in, leaving the basilica with two rows of only five columns. The entrances in the south wall were closed off and three entrances were made in the new north wall. Beyond the south wall, a room with benches and a mosaic floor was added, possibly functioning as a study house. The builders also added a “frame” around the building, ranging from 1.5 to 2 meters away from the original walls. The space in between was filled with rubble, yellowish soil, and random pieces of artifacts.[740]

Maps and Plans

Other Materials

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1981-1986

Deposit Location:

In the areas where the stone pavement had been raised during Stage II, under the flagstones of the main hall.

Archaeological Information:

Stage II, Locus 29A (Basket 1254), Locus 167 (Basket 1729), and Locus 157 (Basket 1693).

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

The excavators note in their 1989 preliminary report that underneath Stage II’s stone floor a total of 520 coins was found. 177 coins were identified from the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, including coins minted by the emperors Arcadius, Honorius, Theodosius II, and Marcian. Many of the coins were worn and, according to the excavators, of “little value.”[741]
In other publications, however, the excavators state that the deposit consisted of a total of only 320 coins.[742] This amount is closer to what is stored in the IAA archives as coming from three different loci: 127 legible coins from L29A, Basket 1254; 138 coins from L167, Basket 1729, and 96 coins from L157, Basket 1693, for a total of 361 coins.[743]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:

The excavations of the Meroth synagogue were never fully published and a coin catalogue of this site has thus never been presented.[744] However, the IAA provided me with a full report on the coins found in the synagogue and gave me permission to include them in this dissertation project. The coins here provided have been analyzed and identified by Gabriela Bijovsky. 361 coins are associated with this deposit in the IAA database. Locus 29A (Basket 1254) yielded 127 identifiable minimi, ranging from 335 to 423 CE, most of which can be dated to the 4^th century.[745] One coin, however, is minted by Trajan and is dated to 99-100 CE, forming an anomaly in the group. Most notable, however, are 32 coins of the VIRTVS EXERCITI (1) type and 47 coins of the GLORIA ROMANORVM (15) type, which are relatively rare in Israel.[746] Both types date to 383-392 CE, suggesting they were added as one group.[747] Locus 167 (Basket 1729) consisted out of 138 identifiable coins, ranging from 330 to 474 CE.[748] Two coins are earlier: a completely worn Hellenistic coin (probably Macedonian) from the third century BCE, and an autonomous Roman provincial coin from Tyre, dated 46-47 CE. Locus 157 (Basket 1693) contained 96 identifiable minimi, ranging from 341 CE to 512 CE.[749] The latest coin is a follis of Anastasius I (507-512 CE), which provides a terminus post quem for the deposit. With the exceptions of the Trajan coin minted in Tiberias, the Roman provincial coin minted in Tyre, one coin minted in Siscia (Valentinian II, 383-392 CE), and one coin minted in Rome (Honorius, 410-423 CE), all the coins are issues of the standard eastern mints.

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

The excavations of the Meroth synagogue were never fully published and a coin catalogue of this site has thus never been presented. However, the IAA provided me with a full report on the coins found in the synagogue and gave me permission to include them in this dissertation project. The coins here provided have been analyzed and identified by Gabriela Bijovsky.
361 coins are associated with this deposit in the IAA database. Locus 29A (Basket 1254) yielded 127 identifiable minimi, ranging from 335 to 423 CE, most of which can be dated to the 4th century. One coin, however, is minted by Trajan and is dated to 99-100 CE, forming an anomaly in the group. Most notable, however, are 32 coins of the VIRTVS EXERCITI (1) type and 47 coins of the GLORIA ROMANORVM (15) type, which are relatively rare in Israel. Both types date to 383-392 CE, suggesting they were added as one group. Locus 167 (Basket 1729) consisted out of 138 identifiable coins, ranging from 330 to 474 CE. Two coins are earlier: a completely worn Hellenistic coin (probably Macedonian) from the third century BCE, and an autonomous Roman provincial coin from Tyre, dated 46-47 CE. Locus 157 (Basket 1693) contained 96 identifiable minimi, ranging from 341 CE to 512 CE. The latest coin is a follis of Anastasius I (507-512 CE), which provides a terminus post quem for the deposit. With the exceptions of the Trajan coin minted in Tiberias, the Roman provincial coin minted in Tyre, one coin minted in Siscia (Valentinian II, 383-392 CE), and one coin minted in Rome (Honorius, 410-423 CE), all the coins are issues of the standard eastern mints.

Conspectus table Meroth, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1981-1986

Deposit Location:

In a hollowed-out stone in the western storeroom, in the northeast corner

Archaeological Information:

Unknown

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA4

Deposit Description:

Most of the floor stones of the western room of the synagogue were pillaged over time. However, some side stones were attached to the walls and were difficult to remove; they were found in situ by the excavators.[750] In the northeast corner of the room lay a stone, only half of which survived, pierced by a 20 cm wide hole.[751] This stone rested above a hollow carved in the rock, the western half of which was clogged up. In the eastern half, under the hole, was a hewn sloping tunnel, 25 cm wide and 60 cm long, which led to a niche dug at the end of the large hollow. The niche measured 35 by 37 centimeters. In this niche, 482 coins were found, mingled with dirt and sand, 237 of which were gold and the rest bronze.[752] The distance between the top of the hole and the top of the niche was 60-95 centimeters. Thus, one would have needed some sort of ladle to remove the coins from the niche. Around the opening of the hollow, eight or nine more gold coins were found scattered around (a coin of the city of Sepphoris struck under Trajan and eight Byzantine coins),[753] as well as a pair of bronze scales. Presumably, the hollow or tunnel originally had a stopper, and a mat or carpet could have been laid over the stone to hide the installation.

Container Present? Yes, a hollowed-out rock

Description of Coins:
Although this deposit was preliminarily studied by Kindler (1986, 1987) and described briefly by Ilan (1995) and Hachlili (2013), a detailed catalogue was never published. The IAA has been working on a full analysis, and their results have been provided to me for inclusion in this dissertation database. The coins have been evaluated by Gabriela Bijovsky.
The deposit contained 56 gold solidi,[754] 37 gold semisses, 150 gold tremisses, 210 bronze folles, and 17 bronze half-folles, 1 bronze fals, 1 gold dinar/denarius, 1 bronze prutah, and 9 bronze unidentified coins, for a total of 482 coins.[755] 470 of these date to the Byzantine period, with 80% produced in the 6^th century. The bulk of the material ranges from 491 CE (Anastasius I) to 610 CE (Phocas), although there are a number of bronze coins that predate the Byzantine period: a prutah of Alexander Jannaeus (80-73 BCE) minted in Jerusalem, and nine Late Roman coins of the 4^th century (including a Roman provincial coin of Constantine I (315-316 CE) minted in Rome, a coin of Valentinian II (383-395 CE), and a coin of Theodosius I (383-392 CE)). Two later coins are exceptional: a gold dinar of the Abbasid caliph Muhammed al-Mahdi dated to 783 CE, and an Ayyubid bronze fals Ayyubid coin of al-‘Aziz ‘Uthman dated to 1193-1198 CE, minted in Damascus. The inclusion of these later coins is intriguing. The excavators suggested that perhaps the stone was still in use during the early Islamic period and that these coins are the only remnants of a larger stash of Abbasid and Umayyad coins that were removed. Or, the coins scattered around the stone are an indication that there was a hasty attempt to retrieve the coins during an emergency in the late 8^th or 9^th century but the local population only managed to take out the upper part of the deposit.[756] This, however, would not explain the late 12^th century coin. Bijovsky therefore calls them later intrusions.[757] For now, these two later coins remain an enigma.
Some of the coins contain punchmarks: these can be seen on 73 folles (1/3 of total) and 8 half-folles (1/2 of total), all attributed to Anastasius I. These figures suggest the popularity of this practice but are not a consistent feature of all the coins.[758] The last exceptional coin in the deposit is a solidus attributed to the Rebellion of the Heraclii, minted at an unknown eastern mint.[759] Emperor Phocas’ unpopular reign ended in 610 during a revolt instigated by Heraclius the Elder, which started in Carthage in 608 CE and soon spread to Palestine.[760] Using North Africa as a base, the rebels managed to overthrow Phocas, beginning the Heraclian dynasty, which ruled Byzantium for a century. During this revolt, the rebels started minting their own series of gold, silver, and bronze coinage. This coin is the only one that has been found so far in Israel and is extremely rare.
Interestingly, this deposit contains almost no minimi, in contrast to the deposit found under the synagogue’s floor. The chronology of the coins also only starts at the point that the floor deposit ends. In other words, the floor deposit is older than the hollowed stone deposit and is of an entirely different make-up.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Meroth, Deposit 2. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Ilan Z. and Damati E., 1985, “Merot,” in: Hadashot Arkheologiot, Vol. 86, p. 8 (Hebrew)
– Kindler A., 1986, “The Synagogue Treasure of Meroth, Eastern Upper Galilee, Israel,” in: Proceedings of the 10th International Congress of Numismatics, London, Association Internationale des Numismates Professionnels, pp. 315-320
– Kindler A., 1987, “The Coins of the Synagogue’s Treasury,” in: Ilan Z. & Damati E. (eds.), Meroth the Ancient Jewish village. The Excavations at the Synagogue and Bet Midrash, Tel Aviv: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, pp. 118-126 (Hebrew)
– Ilan Z., 1989, “The Synagogue and Beth Midrash of Meroth,” in: Hachlili R. (ed.), Ancient Synagogues in Israel: Third-Seventh century C.E., BAR International Series 449, Oxford, pp. 21-41
– Chen D., 1990, “Dating synagogues in Galilee: On the Evidence from Meroth and Capernaum,” in: Liber Annuus, Vol. 40, pp. 349-355 Ilan Z., 1993, “Meroth,” in: NEAEHL, pp. 1028-1031
– Ilan Z., 1995, “The Synagogue and study House at Meroth,” in: Ancient synagogues. Historical Analysis and Archaeological Discovery, Vol. 1, Leiden: Brill, pp. 256-288
– Tsafrir Y., 1995, “The Synagogues at Capernaum and Meroth and the Dating of the Galilean Synagogue,” in: Humphrey J. H. (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East: some recent archaeological research, Vol. 1, Michigan: Ann Arbor, pp. 151-161
– Damati E., 2000, The Meroth Synagogue and its implication on the Chronology of Galilean Synagogues, MA Thesis (Hebrew)
– Magness J., 2001, “The Question of the Synagogue: The Problem of Typology,” in: Avery-Peck A.J. & Neusner J. (eds.) Judaism in Late Antiquity, Part Three, Volume 4: Where We Stand: Issues and Debates in Ancient Judaism, the Special Problem of the Synagogue, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1-49
– Frankel R. et al., 2001, Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee, Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, p. 43
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 276-281
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 57, 69-72, 152, 170, 173-175, 231, 251, 329, 417-419, 421, 532-533, 538, 548-551, 557, 562-564, 594
– Ahipaz N., 2015, The Custom of the Ritual Burial of Coins in Synagogues, MA thesis, pp. 69-74 (Hebrew)

Website(s):

– The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/meroth/
– The Israel Museum:
http://www.museumsinisrael.gov.il/en/items/Pages/ItemCard.aspx?IdItem=ICMS_IMJ_537098
– The Bezalel Narkiss Index of Jewish Art:
http://cja.huji.ac.il/browser.php?mode=treefriend&id=799&f=site

Footnotes

[734] Based on pottery sherds and coins found underneath the floors as well as in the rooms under the synagogue (Ilan 1989, p. 21 and p. 23). Stage IA is dated to 400-450 CE, based on pottery and coins underneath the plaster floor, and stage IB is dated to 450-500, based on a coin of Valentinian III from 425-455 CE, found underneath the mosaic floor. However, no full excavation report on this site, including a pottery and coin catalogue, has been published, and the Valentinian III coins has not been registered at the IAA coin department, so this information cannot be confirmed (see also Bijovsky 2012, p. 94).

[735] More precisely, around 620 CE, based on finds from the Islamic period found between the original walls of the synagogue and a new “frame” that was built around the building (Ilan 1989, p. 37).

[736] Ilan 1989, p. 21. Surveys of the site were conducted in the 1960s, but the place was never identified as the ancient site of Meroth until Zvi Ilan started excavations.

[737] Ilan 1995, p. 261.

[738] Ilan 1995, p. 267: this probably happened at the end of the 5^th or beginning of the 6^th century, based on the discovery of a small follis of Anastasius I dated 507-512 CE, found in L167 below the floor.

[739] Ilan 1995, p. 257. He compares this courtyard with a cistern (in some publicationss erroneously translated as “well”) to the atrium with a cistern that is often associated with ancient churches and remarks that perhaps the builders of the synagogue were influenced by the designs of contemporaneous churches. However, cisterns in the vicinity of synagogues are a well-known feature.

[740] Ilan 1989, pp. 28-29.

[741] Ilan 1989, p. 27.

[742] Ilan and Damati 1987, p. 127.

[743] These numbers are based on the information found in the IAA database and these coins have been added by me to my database. Bijovsky 2012, p. 94, however mentions only 104 legible coins from L167, 109 legible minimi from L157, and 116 legible minimi of L29A, for a total of 329 coins, which no longer seems to be true. See also Ahipaz 2015, pp. 71-72.

[744] I reached out to Emanuel Damati over email in the hopes of getting more information on this deposit but I never received a reply. I also made multiple attempts to get my hand on his (Hebrew) MA thesis in the hopes of finding more information, but my search was unsuccessful.

[745] Bijovksy mentions 128 coins in her unpublished report but this does not correlate with her tables or the IAA database.

[746] Bijovsky, unpublished report.

[747] Bijovsky further points out that this group only has six coins of the SALVS REIPVBLICAE “Victory dragging Captive” type, which usually constitutes the bulk of coins in 5^th-century hoards in Israel/Palestine.

[748] Bijovksy mentions 141 coins in her unpublished report, but this does not correspond to her tables or the IAA database.

[749] Bijovksy mentions 98 coins in her unpublished report, but again this is not the same number of coins as in her tables or the IAA database.

[750] Kindler also refers to this place as “a vaulted storeroom” (1986, p. 315).

[751] Ilan 1995, p. 272. Kindler 1986, p. 315 calls it a “cracked hole.”

[752] Kindler 1986, p. 315; Ilan 1989 p. 30. Kindler, however, states that 248 coins of this deposit were gold (for a total of 485 coins). Ilan describes the tunnel as being 90 cm long instead of 60 cm. In 1995, he stated that the tunnel was 95 cm long.

[753] Kindler 1986, p. 315 mentions one gold coin of Sepphoris and “eight” Byzantine coins, for a total of “eight” coins. Some counting error must have occurred here.

[754] According to Bijovsky, 50 are normal solidi and 6 are lightweight solidi. Four of the lightweight solidi can be attributed to Maurice Tiberius: they are all of the 23 siliqua type and have a star depicted in the reverse right field of the coin, and a globe cruciger instead of the normal globe in the hands of the standing angel. Two can be attributed to Justin II: they are of the 22 siliqua type and have a star to the left of the seated Constantinople, a reverse inscription ending in ΘS, and an exergue reading OB*+*. However, the weight of the normal solidi in this deposit ranges from 3.82 to 4.52 grams (with standard solidus 4.5 gr), while the 6 lightweight solidi range from 4.2 to 4.3 grams (with standard lightweight solidus between 3.75 and 4.3 gr), all displaying significant loss of weight.

[755] Kindler 1986; 1987 writes that there are 56 solidi, 38 semisses, 150 tremisses, 225 folles and 13 half-folles, but this is incorrect. Bijovsky writes in her unpublished analysis that the deposit contains 58 solidi, 36 semisses, and 149 tremisses, but this does not correlate with the catalogue she includes nor with the IAA database.

[756] Kindler 1986, p. 316; Ilan 1989, p. 30; Ilan 1995 p. 273 (who attributes the sudden abandonment to “an attack by a hostile force”).

[757] Unpublished report 2019, p. 10, p. 24. She believes the deposit was closed sometime around 610 CE, when the synagogue went out of use.

[758] For the use of punchmarks on Byzantine coinage, including images of the punchmarks used in the Meroth deposit, see Bijovsky 2012, pp. 189-194 (also Kindler 1986, pp. 317-318). The punchmarks can be attributed to the first monetary reform under Anastasius (also called “small module,” 498-512 CE), to express a change in value of the coin by the same emperor who struck the original coin. According to Hahn and Metlich, they are marks of revalidation, stamped after the introduction of the large module (512-518 CE), to indicate the new value relative to the old coins (Hahn 2000, p. 30). A possible explanation for why they are not applied to all coins might be that the punchmarks were only applied during a short transitional period until enough coins of the large module entered circulation and revalidating coins was no longer necessary (Bijovsky 2012, pp. 193-194).

[759] The date and place of this series is still under discussion, but Hahn and Metlich propose Cyprus as the minting place and the letter Γ on the reverse standing for year three of the rebellion, giving a date of 310-311 CE.

[760] Bijovsky 2012, p. 360.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1974-1977

Excavator(s):

Vassilios Tzaferis

Archaeological Information: /

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: late 3rd-early 4th century [915]
Phase II: end of the 4th – beginning 5th century [916]
Phase III: 6th century

Place of Building in Settlement:
Unknown[917]

Building Description:
Phase I (=Building A): This was an almost square hall with two rows of four columns. By the south wall was a raised, rectangular stone platform. The floor was covered with limestone slabs. The location of the entrance to the building is unknown, but it might have been in the east wall based on the entrances in the later phases.[918] Phase II (= Building B): The width of the hall remained the same, but the building was lengthened by 4 meters on the north side. There were now two rows of five columns. An apse was added in the south wall, with a marble chancel screen in front of it.[919] The floor was covered with mosaics up to the walls, leaving no space for benches. There were two entrances in the east wall. A courtyard surrounded the building on the east and north sides. Phase III (=Building C): A new mosaic floor was laid about 30 cm above the old floor. The east, west, and north walls probably had benches as the mosaics stop about 60 cm in front of these walls. A 10 cm high stone platform extended from the apse into the nave up to the first columns. No pavement was found inside the apse, but in its rear part was an installation built of stones and plaster with a tiled floor; perhaps a genizah.

Maps and Plans

Other Materials

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1974-1977

Deposit Location:

Just outside the south wall, close to the apse

Archaeological Information:

/

Certain association with the building itself? No [920]

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA5

Deposit Description:

A deposit of about 50 coins was found, carefully wrapped in cloth and with a broken roof-tile on top of it, near the apse on the outside of the south wall. [921]

Container Present? Yes: cloth

Description of Coins:
The excavations of the synagogue at Ma’oz Hayyim never received a final publication and the preliminary reports are scarce and limited in their analysis of the building and its artifacts. A full catalogue of the coins found at the site, including the deposit, was never published. A group of 48 coins from this site is in storage at the IAA and is presumably the coin deposit.[922] They form a very limited typology group, all attributed to emperors between Anastasius I (498-518 CE) and Maurice Tiberius (582-602 CE), giving a range of only one century. 34 coins are 40 nummi, eleven are 20 nummi, one is a 16 nummi, one a decannumium, and one unknown. All coins were minted in eastern mints.

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Ma'oz Hayyim, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1974-1977

Deposit Location:

In the apse of the synagogue

Archaeological Information:

Building C

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA2

Deposit Description:

 The area of the bemah, including the apse, was raised ten centimeters above the floor of the hall and paved with stone slabs.[923] Beneath this floor, a post and fragments of marble slabs were found: indications that this area was set off with a chancel screen. Behind the bemah, near the inner wall of the apse, a rectangular installation was found, built of stones and plaster and sunk into the floor. This “chamber” contained several ceramic lamps, fragments of a glass lamp, and coins. The installation was paved with two roof-tiles in secondary use.

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
No catalogue was ever published on the coins found at Ma’oz Hayyim and the preliminary publications do not mention how many coins were found in the apse, nor what its locus number(s) or basket numbers are, so more information on these coins could not be found at the IAA. The coins were presumably bronze (gold coins would have been explicitly mentioned), but unfortunately this is all the information we have on these coins.[924]

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Chiat M., 1982, Handbook of Synagogue Architecture, Chico: Scholars Press, pp. 136-138
– Tzaferis V., 1982a, “The Ancient Synagogue at Ma’oz Hayyim,” in: Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 32, pp. 215-244
– Tzaferis V., 1982b, “The Synagogue at Ma’oz Hayim,” in: Ancient Synagogues Revealed, Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society, pp. 86-89
– Ilan Z., 1991, Ancient Synagogues in Israel, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, pp. 171-172 (Hebrew)
– Tzaferis V., 1993, “Ma’oz Hayyim,” in: NEAEHL, pp. 946-948
– Milson D., 2007, Art and Architecture of the Synagogue in Late Antique Palestine: in the Shadow of the Church, Leiden/Boston, pp. 426-431
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 272-276
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 177, 181, 187, 188, 191, 548, 562

Website(s):

-The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/maoz-hayyim/

Footnotes

[915] The basis for this date is unclear, as Vassilios Tzaferis states that there is “no ceramic or numismatic evidence that date it [the synagogue] precisely” (Tzaferis 1982a, p. 243).

[916] This date is based on the artistic style of the mosaics of Building B, which Tzaferis places sometime between the introduction of the “rainbow style” at the beginning of the 4^th century, and the “single element filling an entire area-style” at the beginning of the sixth century (Tzaferis 1982a, pp. 226-227). Of course, we have since long stepped away from dating synagogues based on art-historical styles. Unfortunately, Tzaferis notes that the fill layers in between the floor levels were sterile, so we cannot date the floors based on pottery or coin evidence. He eventually dates the buildings B and C based on ceramic materials found just outside the building.

[917] Fragments of a mosaic floor were discovered at Kibbutz Ma’oz Hayyim during the construction of security fences in February of 1974, and three seasons of excavations followed. The synagogue was located west of the kibbutz, on a low hill called “the hill of the dwarfs” (Tzaferis 1982a, p. 215). Since no ancient village was ever excavated, however, it is unclear what the relationship was between the synagogue and the town.

[918] Tzaferis 1982a, p. 218.

[919] Tzaferis believes that the chancel screen was already in place in the earliest stage of the synagogue. However, Joan Branham believes the chancel screen in this building was only put there in in the 5^th century (Branham 1992, pp. 384-385)

[920] Because of this reason, this deposit might not be connected to synagogue activities at all, and should possibly be dropped from future synagogue coin deposit lists (see chapter 4.5.2).

[921] Tzaferis 1982b, pp. 88-89.

[922] Personal communication Donald Ariel: “This kind of discrepancy [between 48 and 50 coins] can exist because the IAA only has the data on the identified coins, and in those years [the 1970s] the unidentified material might have been ignored. So, it may very much have been that the deposit was fifty coins and that there were two unidentified coins that were not noted, and maybe even displaced. Today, of course, we do track those unidentified coins, but even between thirty and forty years ago, in the transmission of the 1970s coins to the IAA, then to me in 1989, I can no longer be certain of how many unidentifiable coins there were.”

[923] Tzaferis 1982a, p. 222; Tzaferis 1982b, p. 86. Although Tzaferis calls the podium in front of the apse a bemah, no evidence was found to determine whether this was a bemah or a Torah shrine, or both.

[924] Vassilios Tzaferis passed away in 2015 and it is unlikely that more information on these coins will ever be known.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1. 1905-1907
2. 1926 [813]
3. 1962-1965, 1980-1987

Excavator(s):

1. Heinrich Kohl and Carl Watzinger
2. Na’im Makhouly and Jacob Ory
3. Ze’ev Yeivin

Archaeological Information: Building A

Date of Building Construction:

late 5th century [814]

Place of Building in Settlement:
The building was part of a civic complex with at least seven other large buildings. It sat in the middle of the settlement, along the main road, on top of a basalt plateau. [815]

Building Description:
The building was a basilical synagogue with two rows of five columns and a transverse row of two columns in the north. [816] There were three doorways in the south wall and one doorway in the west wall leading to a small side room. The excavators reconstruct a raised platform with an aedicule on the southern wall, west of the middle entrance, and a bemah east of the middle entrance with two steps leading up to it. Possibly, a Seat of Moses, found in the excavations, was positioned here. The east, west, and north walls were lined with two-tiered benches. The floor was paved with flagstones, which have only partly survived. In front of the building was an open courtyard with a monumental, basalt stairway leading to the synagogue.

Maps and Plans

Other Materials

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1962-1964, 1967-1977

Deposit Location:

Inside the synagogue, below the western threshold in the southern wall.

Archaeological Information:

L162

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type:

Deposit Description:

This deposit was found in L162: a sounding just inside the doorway leading into the west aisle of the synagogue, next to and under the threshold. 311 coins were found under a missing part (about 1/5 in size) of the threshold.[817] In 1967, Kloetzli heard about more coins at Korazin and visited the site in 1967 and 1977, during which he collected about 550 coins “in the south west quarter of the Synagogue.”[818] According to him, many were found on the surface or at a depth of only a few inches. He also found a significant number of coins in the debris from the previous excavations, which was piled up along the southwest wall of the building. He also mentions that some 1200 to 1500 coins were found by UN people (who apparently visited the site). Might all these coins have come from the same deposit?

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
According to Ze’ev Yeivin’s short report on the Korazin excavations from 1973, two hoards were found at the site: one from the 3^rd to 4^th century, and one from the late 4^th-early 5^th centuries.[819] The former was found in Locus 52 (see deposit 4), while the latter was found “beneath the threshold of the synagogue.” However, both Deposit 1 (Locus 162) and Deposit 2 (Locus 163) were found underneath thresholds: the former below the western threshold of the building and the latter beneath the eastern threshold. Which locus is he referring to? Since the article mentions “hundreds of coins,” and L163 only yielded 34 coins, we can assume that the hoard mentioned here is the one from L162. One year later, Ya’akov Meshorer published 35 coins in a preliminary article, as a “representation of the 1200 coins found at the site.” In his catalogue, Nos. 1-4 and 6-30 derive from L52, while nos. 31-32 and 34-35 are from L162. Thus, four coins from Deposit 1 are described here.
Between 1967 and 1968, Godfrey Kloetzli lived in Capernaum and visited the Korazin site. During his visits, he collected around 550 coins from the southwestern area of the synagogue building and he published 71 of them in an article in 1970. Since this excavation was executed without an archaeological permit and no records were kept, it is hard to say if these coins were discovered in the same context as the “hundreds of coins” from L162. But because they were found in more or less the same area, and “many of them were on the surface or at a depth of only a few inches”, I have added them here to the L162 deposit.[820] Unfortunately, these coins are now lost and we have no way of determining if Kloetzli’s identifications are correct; I have placed them in the database at face value, but caution needs to be taken.[821] The “1200-1500” coins that presumably were removed from this area by UN officials and other visitors to the site have not been included.
Eventually, a final excavation report on Korazin was published by Yeivin in 2000. 311 coins from Locus 162 were identified by Ariel, and these can also be found at the IAA. The database entry for this deposit is a combination of these 311 identifiable coins and the 550 found by Kloetzli, for a total of 861 coins.
The 241 datable coins found in L162 range from 85 CE (a coin minted by Nero) to 610 CE (Phocas). The bulk, however, ranges from 307 to 518 CE in equal distribution (93%): a lack of coins dated to 340-390 CE, as Meshorer noted for this group, can no longer be seen with this new evidence.[822] All the coins were minted in eastern mints, with the exception of two minted in Arles (Constantine I, 307-337 CE), three in Rome (Constantius II, 337-340 CE and 337-341 CE; Gratian, 367-383 CE), one in Trier (Constantine I, 307-337 CE), and one in Ticinum (Baduila, 541-549 CE). One coin was minted by Maximian (286-305 CE).[823] Four Late Roman coins are imitation coins (one coming from Alexandria) and one coin minted by Phocas is a double-struck coin (Antioch, 602-610 CE).

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Korazin, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1962-1964

Deposit Location:

Inside the synagogue, below the eastern threshold in the south wall.

Archaeological Information:

L163

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

Two soundings were made along the entrances into the synagogue along the south wall. This deposit was found in L163: a sounding just inside the doorway leading into the east aisle of the synagogue where the threshold was missing. 34 coins were found here.

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
34 coins coming from Locus 163 were published by Ariel in 2000 in an inventory list, and an equal number are in the IAA storage facilities.[824]
The coins in this deposit range from 314 CE to 395 CE and the minting places are along the same lines as the coins from L162: predominantly eastern mints with the exception of a coin from Arles (Julian II, 355-360 CE), one from Rome (Constantine I, 314-315 CE), and one from Ticinum (Constantine I, 324-327 CE).

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Korazin, Deposit 2. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Third Deposit

Date Excavated: 1980

Deposit Location:

Inside the main hall of the synagogue, running along the southern wall and overlapping with previous soundings L162 and L163

Archaeological Information:

L700 (in front of the central entrance), L701 (overlapping with L162), L702 (below L700), and L703 (overlapping with L163)

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? No

Deposit Type: IB6

Deposit Description:

After the removal of an upper layer of dirt, an accumulation of small flat stones was found under the synagogue floor.[825] This apparently was construction or quarry debris used to level the area. Below this layer was a bedding of large basalt blocks. In these loci, 1000 more coins were discovered, most of them in the western part of the building.[826]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
According to Yeivin (1982), approximately a thousand coins were found in these four loci. [827] In his 2000 analysis, Ariel published an inventory list of 41 coins from Locus 700, 125 coins from Locus 701, 660 coins from Locus 702, and 239 coins from Locus 703, for a total of 1065 coins.[828] At the IAA, however, there are 35 identifiable coins coming from L700, 63 from L701, 407 from L702 and 184 from L703, for a total of 689 identified coins. It is these coins that have been entered into the database.
The coins from this deposit have a different make-up than the coins found in Loci 162 and 163. They range from 323 BCE to 654 CE (excluding some later coins), with twelve coins pre-dating the 4^th century. The bulk of the coins (92%) can be dated to the end of the 4^th to beginning of the 5^th century CE. Unfortunately, the minting place of most of the coins cannot be determined. We do, however, have a coin from Arles (Magnus Maximus, 387-388 CE) and three from Rome (Galla Placidia, 425-450 CE; Valentinian II 383-385 CE; Constans I 337-341 CE). As for the seven coins minted in the 2^nd-1^st century BCE, these are of the same modules as the later coins in the deposit and were probably added to the group for this reason.[829] Among the other interesting coins is an anonymous cast imitation of a prototype coin, minted in Egypt, perhaps some time between 540 and 740 CE.[830] 21 coins are imitation coins: we can assume that imitation coins were a common by the end of the 5^th century CE. Four late coins were also found: a Byzantine gold semissis (Heraclius I, 610-613 CE); two Islamic period coins (a gold solidus of Constans II, 651-654 CE and an Umayyad fals, 638-750 CE), and a modem Israeli coin (1968, not kept), indicating that the loci were disturbed later.

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Korazin, Deposit 3. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Fourth Deposit

Date Excavated: 1962-1964

Deposit Location:

Inside a public building that might have been part of a larger synagogue complex, in a hole in the floor, covered with stone slabs.

Archaeological Information:

Complex C, Building E, Locus 52 [831]

Certain association with the building itself? No [832]

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA5

Deposit Description:

This deposit was found in Building E north of the synagogue, in a room adjacent to the alley separating the two buildings.[833] This building had a ritual bath complex in the northern part, enclosed by four walls and paved with thick lime plaster in the west, and with flagstones in the east. The complex was bisected east-west by a row of columns and piers. The immersion pool (2 X 2.5 m) was entered from the north by means of two above-ground and seven underground steps. The pool was probably connected to the cistern close by. South of the pool was a series of rooms built around a central hall, which had four entrances, one in each direction. The buildings seem to have been part of the larger synagogue complex.[834] Over 400 coins were found inside a natural water channel covered by stone beams.[835]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:

According to Ze’ev Yeivin, more than 400 coins were found in this locus; however, only 159 are now at the IAA and were published in Yeivin 2000.[836] Thus, I have indicated 241 coins as unknown. Most of the datable coins can be attributed to the house of Constantine or the early 4^th century: over 90% are dated between 290 and 340 CE. However, the deposit in total ranges from around 100 CE to around 450 CE, with two coins dated even earlier: a coin of Tiberius minted in Jerusalem (18 CE) and a Seleucid coin minted between 312 and 63 BCE.[837] Only eight coins (or 5%) post-date 341 CE. According to Ariel, these late coins are intrusive, “as they are relatively small, and the fact remains that the overwhelming majority of the hoarded coins—100 (or 63%)—date from the 18 years preceding 341 CE.”[838] This deposit further contains many rare examples, most of them Roman provincial coins: three minted in Arles (Constantine I, 316 CE and 318 CE; Licinius I, 321 CE), one minted in Caesarea by Elagabalus (218-222 CE), [839] one coin minted in Gaza (Hadrian, 134-135 CE), one from Londinium (a follis of Constantine I, 307-319 CE), [840] one from Lugdunum (Constantine I, 314-315 CE), one minted in Sepphoris by Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)[841], one from Ticinum (Constantine I, 319-321 CE), two coins from Trier (Maximinus II, 310-313 CE; Constantine II, 337-341 CE), and one coin from Tyre (a silver tetradrachm from Macrinus, 217-218 CE).[842] The deposit also includes a coin of Dalmatius (Alexandria, 335-337 CE), one of only three coins minted by this emperor found in ancient synagogue deposits,[843] three coins of Helena (only found in L703 at the same site and in deposit Area B at synagogue of Bar’am), three coins of Fausta (325-326 CE, only found at this site), one coin of Hadrian (only found at Capernaum and ‘En Gedi), and one each of Hannibalianus (335-337 CE), Maxentius (310-311 CE), and Maximinus II (310-313 CE), the only coins of these emperors found in any ancient synagogue deposit.

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Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Korazin, Deposit 4. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Sukenik E.L., 1934, Ancient Synagogues in Palestine and Greece, London: The Oxford University Press, pp. 21-24
– No Author, 1963, “A further Synagogue Hoard excavated,” in: Israel Numismatic Society, Vol. 1, No. 3, p. 60
– No Author, 1963, “Discovery of Hoard at Korazin,” in: Israel Numismatic Bulletin, Vol. 5, p. 22
– Kloetzli G., 1970, “Coins from Chorazin,” in: Liber Annuus, Vol. 20, pp. 359-369
– Meshorer Y., 1973, “Coins from the Excavations at Khorazim (English Summary),” in: Eretz Israel, Vol. 11, pp. 27-28
– Yeivin Z., 1973, “Excavations at Chorazin,” in: Eretz Israel, Vol. 11, pp. 144-157
– Meshorer Y., 1974, “Coins from the Excavations at Khorazin,” in: Eretz Israel, Vol. 11, pp. 158-162 (Hebrew)
– Hüttenmeister F. & Reeg G., 1977, Die Antiken Synagogen in Israel, 2 vols., Wiesbaden: L. Reichert, pp. 275-281
– Chiat M., 1982, Handbook of Synagogue Architecture, Chico: Scholars Press, pp. 97-102
– Yeivin Z., 1982, “Khorazin,” in: Hadashot Arkheologiot, Vol. 78-79, pp. 10-11 (Hebrew)
– Yeivin Z., 1984, “Khorazin,” in: Hadashot Arkheologiot, p. 8 (Hebrew)
– Yeivin Z., 1987, “Ancient Chorazin Comes Back to Life,” in: The Biblical Arachaeology Review, Vol. 13, No. 5, pp. 22-36
– Dauphin C. 1998, La Palestine Byzantine: Peuplement et Population, Oxford, Vol. 3, pp. 707-708
– Ilan Z., 1991, Ancient Synagogues in Israel, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, pp. 150-152 (Hebrew)
– Yeivin Z., 1993 “Chorazin,” in: NEAEHL, pp. 301-304
– Ariel D.T., 2000, “Coins from the Synagogue at Korazim,” in: Yeivin Z. (ed.), The Synagogue at Korazim: The 1962-1964, 1980-1987 Excavations, Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, pp. 33-49 (English)
– Yeivin Z., 2000, The Synagogue at Korazim: The 1962-1964, 1980-1987 Excavations, Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority (Hebrew)
– May N., 2002, “Reconstructing the Architectural Décor of the Major Synagogue at Korazim,” in: ‘Atiqot, Vol. 43, pp. 207-252
– Bijovsky G., 2007, “Numismatic Evidence for the Gallus Revolt: The Hoard from Lod,” in: Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 57, No. 2, pp. 187-203
– Magness J., 2007, “The Date of the Synagogue of Chorazin,” in: Michmanim, Vol. 20: pp. 7-18
– Magness J., 2007, “Did Galilee Decline in the Fifth Century? The Synagogue at Chorazin Reconsidered,” in: Zangenberg J., Attridge H. & Martin D. (eds.), Religion, Ethnicity, and Identity in Ancient Galilee: a Region in Transition, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 259-274
– Milson D., 2007, Art and Architecture of the Synagogue in Late Antique Palestine: in the Shadow of the Church, Leiden/Boston, pp. 45-47, 337-338
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 177-181
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 57, 69-70, 126, 128, 141, 152, 160-161, 171, 173, 207, 217-219, 239-246, 277, 437, 440, 485-487, 531, 547-548, 593
– Ahipaz N., 2015, The Custom of the Ritual Burial of Coins in Synagogues, MA thesis, pp. 55-60 (Hebrew)

Website(s):

– The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/chorazim/
– See the Holy Land:
https://www.seetheholyland.net/chorazin/
– Bible Walks:
https://biblewalks.com/Sites/Korazim.html

Footnotes

[812] In older publications, the site is sometimes called Chirbet Kerâze, or just Kerâze.

[813] Inspectors of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine Government “cleared the synagogue and removed a later building erected on its northwestern corner” (Yeivin 1987, p. 24). Sukenik then visited the site and described his observations in his 1934 publication (Sukenik 1934, pp. 21-24).

[814] This date is based on Jodi Magness’ re-evaluation of the numismatic and ceramic evidence found under the floor of the building (Magness 2007a; 2007b). Yeivin dates the construction of the building in his final publication to the 4^th century CE, but after having looked at the evidence, I am convinced enough to follow Magness’ construction date, based on the identification of well-stratified coins. This date could even be pushed later if we believe that 6^th and 7^th century coins found under the floor and threshold of the building are not intrusive (see below).

[815] The site was first identified with ancient Chorazin in the middle of the 19^th century. Kohl and Watzinger were the first to recognize a synagogue at the site during their 1905 survey. For an overview of the different visitors to the site and the references to Korazin in the ancient sources, see Kohl and Watzinger 1916, pp. 41-43; Chiat 1982, p. 97; Yeivin 1987, p. 24; and Yeivin 2000, p. 7*.

[816] In 1987, Yeivin described two synagogue buildings: according to him, the first was constructed at the end of the 3^rd century or beginning of the 4^th century. This building was destroyed in an earthquake and a new synagogue was built at the beginning of the 5^th century. According to Yeivin, the stone pavement floor was replaced by a plaster floor. Then, perhaps at the end of the 5^th century, this plaster pavement was destroyed and filled with earth. It was in this earth filling that over 2000 coins were found during excavation (Yeivin 1987, p. 35). Magness, however, contests this idea (see footnote 814). According to her analysis, the synagogue building was constructed in only one phase, with a terminus post quem in the third quarter of the 5^th century. She explains the different floors as following: “the Jewish community’s plans for the synagogue seem to have been overly ambitious, and after work got underway the fine flagstone pavement and ashlar benches were abandoned in lieu of cheaper alternatives” (Magness 2007b, p. 274). The coin deposit found in Building E (see below) confirms Magness’ one-phase hypothesis: in this deposit, found in a building that was constructed contemporaneously with the synagogue (Yeivin 2000, p. 30*), coins from the 5^th century were discovered. Yeivin dismisses these coins as “probably intrusive” (Yeivin 2000, p. 30*) but they fit with Magness’ interpretation. For these reasons, a construction date in the late 5^th century CE has been chosen for this synagogue building.

[817] Yeivin 2000, p. 9*.

[818] Kloetzli 1970, p. 359. These excavations were conducted without a permit and it is unclear what happened to the coins (personal communication Donald Ariel).

[819] Yeivin 1973, p. 27*.

[820] As the coins from Locus 700-703 were found at a deeper level. However, one must also take into account that “a good amount” of these 550 were found “in debris from excavations which was piled at the SW wall of the ruins.” It is impossible to say where these coins came from.

[821] Godfrey Kloetzli was an American Franciscan priest who spent much of his time in Israel as a guide and authority on holy places; as far as I know, he was not a trained numismatist.

[822] Meshorer 1973, p. 158: he associated this gap in the coin range to an abandonment of the site after the Gallus Revolt. This no longer seems to be correct (see also Bijovsky 2007b). If, furthermore, we accept the identifications given by Kloetzli for a couple of coins attributed to Phocas, and they are not later intrusions but come from the sealed loci, then this would push the date of the construction of the building even later, possibly to the beginning of the 7^th century.

[823] The only other synagogue deposit with a coin of Maximian is from Horvat Rimmon (Group D).

[824] Yeivin 2000, pp. 33*-49*. The only information given here, however, are the dates of the coins.

[825] Yeivin 1982, p. 10; Magness 2007, p. 269.

[826] Ahipaz 2015, p. 58 notes that after Donald Ariel consulted with the original excavators, it became clear that there is uncertainty about the exact location of the loci. It seems that it was not always clear if the locus was related to finds found above, or below the floor level. Thus, these coins need to be treated with some caution; for example, there are two Islamic coins and a modern Israeli coin among the group, which indicates disturbance of some kind (see also Magness 2007, p. 269).

[827] Yeivin 1982, p. 10: he did not consider them a hoard, in contrast to the coins found in L162 and L52.

[828] Yeivin 2000, pp. 33*-49*. The only information given here, however, are the dates of the coins.

[829] Ariel thinks it is most likely that the contributors were unaware that they were adding “pagan” or “autonomous Jewish kings”-coins to the group. This assumes that people cared about the kind of coins that were deposited in the synagogue (Yeivin 2000, p. 35*).

[830] Egypt is given as minting place in the IAA database. Ariel, however, notes that it was minted at Axum, Ethiopia (Yeivin 2000, p. 37*). The kingdom of Aksum (approximately 80 BCE-825 CE) at its height at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Sudan, Egypt, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. There is no consensus on the exact date of this coin. Ariel indicates that this imitation type could have been circulating much earlier than 540 CE, possibly already between 330 and 385 CE, which would better fit the coin range of this deposit.

[831] The archaeological numbering of this building is confusing. In 1987, Yeivin calls this complex C. In his NEAEHL report and in the 2000 final excavation report, he calls it Complex E.

[832] Because of this reason, this deposit might not be connected to synagogue activities at all, and should possibly be dropped from future synagogue coin deposit lists.

[833] Yeivin 2000, p. 33*.

[834] Yeivin 2000, p. 33*.

[835] In 1987, however, Yeivin calls it “a specially cut chamber” covered with stone slabs. So, was it made deliberately for the coin deposit or not?

[836] Yeivin 1973, p. 148; Yeivin 2000, pp. 33*-49*.

[837] Ariel notes that the deposit was closed around 340 CE, giving a terminus post quem for the construction of Building E that is close to the construction of the synagogue building (Yeivin 2000, p. 36*). However, we already saw that the construction of the synagogue should be dated much later (at least the end of the 5^th century, if not later if we accept that the coins found at L162, L702, and L703 are not intrusive), and the same could be said about this building.

[838] Yeivin 2000, p. 33*.

[839] 11 other Elagabalus coins were found at the nearby synagogue of Wadi Hamam, one at the synagogue of Horvat Kanaf, and four at En-Gedi.

[840] This is the only coin from London found in any ancient synagogue deposit.

[841] This is the only coin from Sepphoris found in any ancient synagogue deposit.

[842] Ariel notes another worn, countermarked coin, apparently of the second century CE (Roman Imperial coin, IAA no. 11291) (Yeivin 2000, p. 35*).

[843] The others having been found in Locus 163 at the same site, and at Capernaum.

Download Spreadsheet: Building

Dates Excavated:

1978-1981

Excavator(s):

Amos Kloner

Archaeological Information: Stratum IV-Stratum VII

Date of Building Construction:

Phase I: second half 3^rd century[962]
Phase II: second half 4^th century[963]
Phase III: end 5^th to beginning 6^th century[964]
Phase IV: early 7^th century[965]

Place of Building in Settlement:
On the highest point of the hill. [966]

Building Description:
Phase I (=Stratum IV): Because of the poor state of preservation of the walls, a final plan of the first phase of the synagogue has not been published. It is identified as a broadhouse type, with a rectangular niche in the center of the north wall, the floor of which is 2.5 meters higher than that in the main hall.[967] The floors were paved with a crushed-limestone floor on a pebble and cobble foundation. Phase II (=Stratum V (a-b)): The synagogue was a basilica with two rows of three columns. The floor was paved with plastered fieldstones. There were three entrances in the southern wall, preceded by a narthex, and a long room runs north-south to the west of the main hall. This western room was used as a dump during Phase III (see below), after the synagogue was destroyed by fire. Phase III: The synagogue was reconstructed after a fire had destroyed the building, some time in the late fifth to early sixth century. The walls were now strengthened and ten pillar bases were inserted into the floor, dividing the main hall into a central nave and two side aisles. A platform stood along the north wall.[968] The western room was used as a dump for debris, as large amounts of ashy remains indicated. In this debris, two separate strata were identified, although they apparently were excavated as a single locus.[969] The upper 80 cm of debris contained finds dated to the Byzantine period, while the lower 20 cm had sherds from the Second Temple period to the second century CE. Phase IV (=Stratum VI-VII): The last synagogue reused the walls of its predecessor, but was paved with a new floor of rectangular stone slabs.[970] The hall was divided into a nave and two side aisles by two rows of three free-standing columns and two pilasters. In the western room, a beaten earth floor and tabun were installed.

Maps and Plans

Copyright-Protected Materials (logged-in members only)

First Deposit

Date Excavated: 1979

Deposit Location:

In the upper layer of debris in the western side room.

Archaeological Information:

Locus 33, Hoard A

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA7

Deposit Description:

During Phase III, the western room was used as a dump: an 80 cm deep layer of debris was discovered, containing material dated to the Byzantine period. Distributed throughout the fill were numerous artifacts, including a bronze candelabrum, glass lamps, cast bronze leaves, chains and pieces of various vessels, a golden pendant, glass and stone beads, bone and ivory objects, a glass plate, pieces of jars and cooking pots, oil lamps, roof tiles, iron nails, and fragments of a chancel screen.[971] A short time after this debris had accumulated, a deposit of 12 gold coins in a small pottery jar covered by a stone was buried upside down in the top layer of this fill.[972] Locus 33 is located in the middle of the western side room (or annex), bordered by W1 on the west and W20 on the east. It was originally a probe into a deep layer of dirt fill and debris, and was later divided into the different layers L33a, L33b, and L33c.[973] L33 a is located between W28 on the north and W26 on the south, and is dated to Stratum VI. L33b is located between W27 on the north and L64 on the south, and is dated to Stratum V. L33c is located between W27 on the north and W35 on the south, and is dated to Strata II-III. Deposit 1 was found in the debris of L33b. There is no floor associated with it.

Container Present? Yes: small pottery jar

Description of Coins:
The twelve gold coins from Hoard A were published by Amos Kloner and Tessa Mindel in 1981. The coins range from 364-375 CE (Valentinian I) to 491-518 CE (Anastasius I), and, with the exception of the two coins of Valentinian I, were all minted in Constantinople. The coins show a range in wear, with a very worn coin of Leo I (457-474 CE), seven coins with signs of some circulation, and four almost uncirculated specimens (including three out of the five latest coins).[974] The deposit includes three solidi, two semisses, and seven tremisses.

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Rimmon, Deposit 1. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Second Deposit

Date Excavated: 1979

Deposit Location:

In the upper layer of debris in the western side room.

Archaeological Information:

Locus 33, Hoard B

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA7

Deposit Description:

Found in the same upper debris layer as Hoard A, in the western room of synagogue Phase III, or the debris of Locus 33b. 35 coins were originally wrapped in cloth (small parts of this cloth were preserved) and put in a small pottery jug. [975] The jug was buried upside down, about 1 meter away from Hoard A, at the same depth. It also has no floor associated with it.

Container Present? Yes: cloth bundle inside pottery jug

Description of Coins:
The 35 gold coins from Hoard B were published by Amos Kloner and Tessa Mindel in 1981. The coins range from 364-375 CE (Valentinian I) to 491-518 CE (Anastasius I), and, with the exception of one coin of Valentinian I, all were minted in Constantinople, following the same pattern as Hoard A. The same trend in wear can be seen as well, with four coins showing signs of a lot of wear (including the two oldest coins), twenty coins show some signs of circulation, and eleven coins almost uncirculated (including seven of the Anastasius I coins). [976] The deposit includes one solidus, nine semisses, and 25 tremisses.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Rimmon, Deposit 2. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Third Deposit

Date Excavated: 1979

Deposit Location:

In the upper layer of debris in the western side room.

Archaeological Information:

Locus 64, Group D (Baskets 213, 214, 226, 233, 241, 262, 291, 301, 302, 307, 308, and 316)

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IA2

Deposit Description:

160 loose bronze coins were found in dirt debris beneath the ash floor (L44) in the southern part of the room, separate from Locus 65.[977] This debris seems to be an intentional fill.[978] The coins were found mixed with other objects, including lamps, pieces of candelabra, and jewelry.[979]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
According to Kloner, 160 coins from the third-fifth century were found in the ash fill of the room.[980] Unfortunately, these coins have not been published. The IAA, however, provided me with a catalogue of coins found in group “D” analyzed by Gabriela Bijovsky: coins found scattered over the ash floor of Locus 64. According to Bijovsky, 25 coins were illegible and 106 were legible, for a total of (only) 131 coins. Thus, 131 coins have been added to my database from this deposit.
The coins range in date from 268-270 CE (Claudius II Gothicus) to 409-410 CE (Honorius), with the peak of the coins around 400 CE. This makes the deposit older than the gold deposits. Almost all coins were minted in eastern mints, with the exception of a coin from Lugdunum (Constantine I, 330-335 CE) and one from Rome (Gratian, 375-378 CE). The early provincial coin of Claudius Gothicus as well as another uncertain coin are Antoniniani. Two other Roman Provincial coins include a coin of Maximinianus Herculeus (a follis, 286-305 CE), and one of Galerius Maximianus (296-305 CE). One coin dated to the first half of the 5^th century is a VOTA imitation coin, with a blundered inscription in a wreath. The last coins in the group include seven folles, an uncertain pentanummium, and a dodecanummium, potentially of Justinian I, making this a usual mixed coin deposit.

Other Images

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Rimmon, Deposit 3. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Fourth Deposit

Date Excavated: 1979-1980

Deposit Location:

In western hall, inside a hole between two stones in the wall

Archaeological Information:

Wall W25, Group C (Basket 250)

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IIA3

Deposit Description:

64 bronze coins were found in the western hall of the synagogue, in a hole or crack in between two stones in the west wall, some 20 cm above the floor of Locus 64.[981]

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
According to Kloner, the 64 coins found in the wall date to the 3^rd, 4^th, and beginning of the 5^th centuries CE.[982] The coins have not been published but the IAA provided me with an analysis conducted by Gabriela Bijovsky that shows 58 legible coins coming from this basket. I assume the other six coins were illegible.
The coins in this deposit range from 276-282 CE (Probus) to 410-423 CE (Honorius) but most of the coins are from the 4^th century, reflecting a same date range as those from Locus 64. All the coins are of the minimi low denomination (no folles are represented in this group). Four coins are Roman provincial, including two coins of Probus, one of Carinus,[983] and one of Diocletianus: all are Antoniniani. Of the 21 mintmarks that are legible, only one potentially came from a non-eastern mint: the late coin of Honorius, dated 410-423 CE and minted in Rome. Twelve coins are so poorly preserved that they could only generally be dated to the 4^th century.

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Rimmon, Deposit 4. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

Fifth Deposit

Date Excavated: 1979

Deposit Location:

In the upper layer of debris in the western side room.

Archaeological Information:

Locus 65, Group E (Baskets 216, 227, 234, 245, 249, 261, 262, and 289)

Certain association with the building itself? Yes

Deposit Retrievable? Yes

Deposit Type: IA2

Deposit Description:

54 loose bronze coins were found in dirt debris beneath ash floor Locus 44 in the southern part of the room, scattered over the ash floor of Locus 65, but separate from Locus 64. [984] The coins were mixed with other objects, such as oil lamps, pieces of candelabra, and jewelry.

Container Present? No

Description of Coins:
According to Bijovsky (2012), fifty coins similar in character to Group D were found in this deposit in Locus 65, two of which are later intrusions: a follis of Anastasius I, dated to 512-518 and a solidus of Heraclius. However, in her unpublished IAA report, she writes that 39 coins were legible (one was a later intrusion), four coins were illegible, and eleven crumbled during cleaning. This makes for a total of 54 coins originally coming from the in situ deposit. The coins range in date from 284-296 CE (Diocletian) to 408-423 CE (Honorius), reflecting the same date range as the coins from Group C and D. The earliest coins are two Roman Imperial Antoniniani: the coin of Diocletian already mentioned and an uncertain coin dated to the end of the third century. The minting places of only twelve coins could be determined, but all come from eastern mints except two coins from Rome (Valentinian II, 378-383 CE and Honorius, 402-409 CE).

Conspectus Table:

Conspectus table Horvat Rimmon, Deposit 5. This table can be seen in full screen by clicking the icon on the bottom right. For more details on the specific coins in each row, please hover over the numbers.

Download Spreadsheet: Deposit

References

Bibliography:

– Kloner A., 1979, “H. Rimmon,” in: Hadashot Arkheologiyot, Vol. 72, pp. 32-34 (Hebrew)
– Kloner A., 1980, “Hurvat Rimmon, 1979,” in: Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 30, Nos. 3-4, pp. 226-228
– Kloner A. & Mindel T., 1981, “Two Byzantine Hoards from the Ancient Synagogue of Horvat Rimmon,” in Israel Numismatic Journal, Vol. 5, pp. 60-68
– Chiat M., 1982, Handbook of Synagogue Architecture, Chico: Scholars Press, pp. 228-230
– Kloner A., 1983, “The Synagogue of Horvat Rimmon,” in: Qadmoniyot, vol. 16, pp. 65-71 (Hebrew)
– Naveh J. & Shaked S., 1985, Amulets and Magic Bowls, Leiden: Brill, pp. 84-89 no. 10
– Kloner A., 1989, “The Synagogues of Horvat Rimmon,” in: Hachlili R. (ed.), Ancient Synagogues in Israel: Third-Seventh century C.E., BAR International Series 499, Oxford, pp. 43-48
– Ilan Z., 1991, Ancient Synagogues in Israel, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, pp. 278-279 (Hebrew)
– Kloner A., 1992, “The Ancient Synagogue of Horvat Rimmon,” in: Proceedings of the 8th World Congress of Jewish Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 7-9 (Hebrew)
– Kloner A., 1993, “Horvat Rimmon,” in: NEAEHL, pp. 1284-1285
– Magness J., 2003, The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine, Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, pp. 97-99
– Milson D., 2007, Art and Architecture of the Synagogue in Late Antique Palestine: in the Shadow of the Church, Leiden/Boston, pp. 396-399
– Bijovsky G., 2012, Gold Coins and Small Change: Monetary Circulation in the Fifth-Seventh Century Byzantine Palestine, pp. 64-77, 95-96; 175-176, 211, 273-274, 328-3314, 50-455
– Spigel C., 2012, Ancient Synagogue Seating Capacities: Methodology, Analysis and Limits, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 244-247
– Hachlili R., 2013, Ancient Synagogues: Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research, Leiden: Brill, pp. 58, 250, 537-538, 552-553
– Ahipaz N., 2015, The Custom of the Ritual Burial of Coins in Synagogues, MA thesis, pp. 78-82 (Hebrew)
– Werlin S., 2015, Ancient Synagogues of Southern Palestine, 300-800 CE: Living on the Edge, Leiden: Brill, pp. 222-236

Website(s):

– The Bornblum Eretz Israel Synagogues Website:
http://synagogues.kinneret.ac.il/synagogues/rimon/
– Mapio:
https://mapio.net/pic/p-94902537/

Footnotes

[962] This phase is called the Early Synagogue (Late Roman, Stratum IV) and is dated by the archaeologists to 250-363 CE (personal communication Sherry Whetstone). It appears that the end of the synagogue has been connected to the earthquake of 363 CE, but since the final report has not been published yet, it is unclear if this is persuasive.

[963] This phase is called the Middle Synagogue, Stratum Va (early Byzantine, 363-500 CE) (personal communication Sherry Whetstone).

[964] This phase is called the Middle Synagogue (Middle Byzantine, Stratum Vb) and is dated to 500-600 CE. This date is based on the destruction of the synagogue by fire and the ash layer it left at the end of Stratum Vb: coins found in Groups D and E (below the ash) give a terminus post quem for the destruction, while the coins found in Hoards A and B (above the ash) give an ante quem (see below).

[965] This phase is called the Late Synagogue (Late Byzantine, Stratum VI) and is dated to 600-700 CE. This date is based on coins found beneath the pavement of the last synagogue building, the latest of which date to Phocas (602-610 CE).

[966] The site of Horvat Rimmon never received a final excavation report. I was in contact via email with Amos Kloner in 2019, but unfortunately, he passed away at the end of that year before I could get more information on the coin deposits from him. The manuscript should be in the final stages of publication.

[967] Kloner 1989, p. 47.

[968] It is unclear if this platform belongs to Phase II (Spigel 2012a, p. 245) or Phase III. Kloner treats the bemah as part of Phase III, but also indicated that it was an integral part of the northern wall, which was constructed during Phase II (Kloner 1989, Werlin 2015, p. 230).

[969] Werlin 2015, p. 228.

[970] Magness 2003, p. 98.

[971] Werlin 21015, pp. 228-229, based on Kloner 1989 p. 45 and Naveh and Shaked 1985, p. 87.

[972] Kloner and Mindel 1981, p. 60 date the burial of the vessel to Stratum Vb, sometime between the late fourth and mid-sixth century. Magness believes that the ashy debris in the room (L64, beneath the northern half of L44/L62) is evidence of the destruction of the synagogue by fire. A short time after this episode, the gold deposit was buried; the fire thus must have happened sometime in the late 5^th or early 6^th century (Magness 2003, pp. 97-98 and Bijovsky 2012, p. 96).

[973] I am grateful to Sherry Whetstone who took the time to check the contexts of the coin deposits found at Horvat Rimmon and shared with me the information that she could find on them in the unpublished final publication manuscript.

[974] Kloner and Mindel 1981, p. 61.

[975] Kloner and Mindel 1981, p. 60.

[976] Kloner and Mindel 1981, p. 61.

[977] See below. The ash floor covered the sealed debris of the Byzantine period in the southern half of the western annex, south of the line of W26 (personal communication Sherry Whetstone).

[978] Kloner 1989, p. 45; Bijovsky 2012, p. 95 “The room served as a dump or storeroom for broken or discarded objects for about a hundred years. The dump consisted of an 80 cm deep fill yielding many large stones, fragments of copper and other objects.”

[979] One of the reports (Kloner 1980, p. 227) states that the fill with loose coins and scattered objects, and the two pots with gold coins were found in separate rooms. This is not correct: all the coin assemblages come from the same western side room.

[980] Kloner 1989, p. 45.

[981] Kloner 1980, p. 227; Bijovsky 2012a, p. 95. This is W25, the Stratum IV wall beneath W1. L64 is the dirt fill that contained much debris beneath the northern half of L44/L62 (personal communication Sherry Whetstone).

[982] Kloner 1989, p. 45.

[983] This is the only coin of Carinus found in an ancient synagogue deposit.

[984] L65 is the dirt fill beneath the southern half of L44, which contained a lot of debris (personal communication Sherry Whetstone).